LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 


PRESENTED  BY 

MRS.    NELLIE  R.    PREUSS 


QRASSES 


NORTH     AMERICA 


FARMERS  AND  STUDENTS 

COMPRISING 

CHAPTERS    ON    THEIR    PHYSIOLOGY,    COMPOSITION,    SELECTION,   IMPROVING, 

CULTIVATION,   MANAGEMENT  OF  GRASS  LANDS;    ALSO  CHAPTERS 

ON    CLOVERS,   INJURIOUS    INSECTS,    AND    FUNGI. 


W.  J.   BEAL,  M.  A.,  \I.  Sc.,  PH.  D., 

Professor  of  Botany  and  Forestry  in  Michigan  Agricultural  College. 


PUBLISHED   AND  COPYRIGHTED  BY   THE   AUTHOR, 

P.   O.   AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE,   MICH. 

1887. 


THORP  &  GODFREY,    PRINTERS  AND  BINDERS. 
LANSING. 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
SANTA  BARBA11A 


PRKKACE. 


This  volume  may  appear  fragmentary  and  disconnected  and 
may  contain  repetitions,  and  there  may  l>e  important  omis- 
sions. This  is  partially  owing  to  the  fact  that  much  of  the 
work  has  been  performed  at  odd  hours,  sometimes  with  many 
days  intervening.  A  full  index  will  enable  any  one  to  find 
the  topics  which  are  mentioned. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  farmer  or  general  reader  who  has  never 
studied  botany,  will  find  much  to  interest  and  help  him, 
while  it  is  believed  the  agricultural  student  will  find  still 
more. 

While  many  points  are  mentioned  and  illustrations  freely 
used,  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  write  a  complete  account 
of  the  structure  and  physiology  of  grasses. 

Although  not  grasses,  after  some  misgivings  of  the  author, 
a  chapter  on  clovers  was  added,  because  the  farmer  would 
doubtless  be  disappointed  if  he  did  not  find  one. 

An  effort  has  been  made  to  give  credit  to  everyone  who  has 
been  of  much  assistance  in  contributing  to  the  volume,  first, 
because  it  is  due  to  such  persons,  and  second,  because  if 
accurately  quoted,  it  makes  them  responsible  for  the  state- 
ments which  are  made. 

In  the  chapter  on  bibliography  will  be  found  most  of  the 
sources  of  information,  aside  from  the  studies  and  experi- 
ments of  the  author.  I  have  freely  used,  without  quotation 
marks,  my  own  contributions  made  at  various  times  during 
the  past  seventeen  years,  to  the  Rural  New  Yorker,  Philadel- 


iv  PREFACE. 

phia  Press,  New  York  Tribune,  Prairie  Farmer,  the  Clover 
Leaf,  also  using  my  reports  as  printed  in  the  Michigan  Board 
of  Agriculture.  Liberal  quotations  have  been  made  from  the 
publications  of  Baron  J.  B.  Lawes,  Charles  Darwin,  Maxwell 
T.  Masters,  George  Bentham,  Wm.  Caruthers,  Prof.  James 
Buckman,  Dr.  A.  Voelcker,  of  England;  M.  J.  Duval-Jouve, 
of  France;  Ernest  Hackel,  of  Germany;  J.  S.  Gould,  C.  W. 
Howard,  Dr.  D.  L.  Phares,  Joseph  Harris  and  J.  B.  Kille- 
brew,  of  our  own  country. 

My  colleague,  Prof.  A.  J.  Cook,  contributed  the  long  and 
valuable  chapter  on  Insects  Injurious  to  Grasses  and  Clovers, 
while  Prof.  William  Trelease,  D.  Sc.,  contributed  that  on 
Fungi  injurious  to  the  same  orders  of  plants. 

My  friend,  Prof.  F.  Lamson  Scribner,  has  shown  much 
interest  in  the  work,  and  to  him  I  am  especially  indebted  for 
many  of  the  excellent  drawings  of  grasses.  Mr.  G.  B.  Sud- 
worth  also  made  many  drawings  and  copied  others. 

The  Levytype  Company,  of  Philadelphia,  and  the  Lewis 
Engraving  Company,  of  Boston,  prepared  most  of  the  plates 
from  the  drawings  illustrating  the  work. 

Frequent  quotations  have  been  made  from  the  Rural  New 
Yorker,  Country  Gentleman,  New  York  Tribune,  Prairie  Far- 
mer, Farmers'  Review,  and  many  agricultural  reports  of  this 
country  and  of  Europe. 

The  following  persons  also  prepared  more  or  less  manu- 
script for  these  pages,  and  credit  is  given  on  the  pages  where 
the  contributions  appear:  Prof.  E.  M.  Shelton,  of  Kansas; 
Dr.  H.  P.  Armsby,  of  Wisconsin;  Prof.  C.  G.  Pringle,  of 
Vermont ;  Dr.  C.  E.  Bessey,  of  Nebraska ;  Prof.  J.  J.  Thomas, 
Major  H.  E.  Alvord,  Prof.  I.  P.  Roberts,  Dr.  E.  L.  Sturte- 
vant  and  J.  S.  Woodward,  of  New  York;  A.  W.  Cheever,  of 
Massachusetts ;  Prof.  J.  W.  Sanborn,  of  Missouri ;  Prof.  F. 


PREFACE.  v 

A.    Gulley,    of    Mississippi;    Professors   Latta  and   Troop,    of 
Purdue  University,  Indiana. 

The  following  list  should  be  added  as  freely  quoted:  Prof. 
F.  L.  Scribner,  Clifford  Richardson  and  Dr.  G.  Vasey,  of 
Washington;  Dr.  R.  C.  Kedzie,  of  Michigan;  Dr.  A.  Gray, 
Prof.  N.  S.  Schaler,  and  Prof.  F.  L.  Storer,  of  Massachusetts; 
Secretary  W.  I.  Chamberlain,  now  president  of  Iowa  Agricult- 
ural College;  Mr.  L.  N.  Bonham,  of  Ohio;  E.  S.  Carman, 
of  New  York;  Prof.  Wm.  Brown,  of  Ontario;  Prof.  G.  E. 
Morrow,  of  Illinois,  and  Mr.  De  Laune,  of  England. 

For  reading  portions  of  proof  I  am  indebted  to  my  col- 
legues,  Prof.  A.  J.  Cook,  Dr.  Lewis  McLouth,  Prof.  E.  J. 
MacEwan,  Prof.  L.  H.  Bailey,  jr.,  also  to  Prof.  V.  M.  Spauld- 
ing,  of  Ann  Arbor,  and  Prof.  F.  L.  Scribner,  of  Washington. 
Thorp  &  Godfrey,  of  Lansing,  Mich.,  are  credited  with  the 
mechanical  part  of  the  work. 

A  second  volume  is  in  preparation.  This  is  to  contain  the 
description  of  all  known  grasses  of  North  America,  700  or 
more  species,  with  illustrations  of  one  species  in  each  genus, 
and  in  some  cases  more  than  one.  Full  notes  in  regard  to 
their  value  for  cultivation  will  be  given.  A  chapter  on  Geo- 
graphical Distribution  and  other  information  likely  to  interest 
the  student  of  grasses  will  be  presented. 

W.   J.    BEAL. 

BOTANICAL  LABORATOEY, 

AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE,  MICH. 

JANUARY,  1887. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE    STRUCTURE,    FORM    AND    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    GRASSES. 


PAGE 

Protoplasm 1 

Cells 1 

Chlorophyll 1 

Roots 2 

Trichomes,  root-hairs _• 3 

The  stem 5 

The  leaf 9 

The  sheath 9 

The  blade.- 10 

Minute  structure  of  the  leaf. - --- 13 

The  epidermal  system 14 

The  epidermis  proper 14 

Thebulliform  cells.. 16 

The  stomata 16 

Trichomes 16 

Bulliform  cells 17 

Movements  of  leaves. - 23 

Fibro-vascular  bundles 25 

Hypodermal  fibrous  tissue 26 

Parenchyma  of  the  leaf 28 

The  tortion  of  leaves 29 

Generic  and  specific  characters  in  the  leaf 30 

The  bracts  and  flowers. 33 

Morphology  of  the  bracts  and  flowers 33 

Fertilization  of  the  flowers 37 

The  caryopsis  or  grain 41 

The  seed...  41 


viii  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    POWER    OF    MOTION    IN    PLANTS. 


CHAPTER  HI. 

PLANT    GROWTH. 

PAGE 

Oermination  of  seeds. 48 

The  function  of  green  leaves 49 

The  plant  is  a  factory.. 50 

The  composition  of  plants 51 

The  chemical  composition  of  American  grasses 52 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CLASSIFYING,    NAMING,    DESCRIBING,    COLLECTING,    STUDYING. 

Plant  affinity. 60 

Families  of  greatest  worth 61 

Oramineae,  the  grass  family 64 

The  name  of  a  plant 69 

Collecting  and  preserving  grasses 70 

Grasses  in  certain  places 73 

How  to  begin  the  study 75 


CHAPTER  V. 

NATIVE    GRAZING    LANDS. 

Effectof  over-feeding  dry  districts 78 

The  native  pastures 80 

The  native  grasses  of  the  Pacific  slope.. 82 

The  agricultural  grasses  of  Montana 87 

The  native  grasses  of  the  great  basin 93 

The  native  grasses  of  Northern  Mexico. 94 

How  seeds  are  distributed .  100 


CONTENTS.  ix 
CHAPTER  VI. 

GRASSES    FOR    CULTIVATION. 

PAGE 

Phleum,  Timothy.. 101 

Dactylis,  orchard  grass 109 

Arrhenatherum,  tall  oat-grass 121 

Festuca,  tall  fescue 126 

Meadow  fescue 1 27 

Sheep's  fescue 132 

Hard  fescue 132 

Poa  pratensis,  June  grass 132 

Poa  compressa,  flat-stemmed  poa,  wire  grass 137 

Poa  serotina,  fowl  meadow  grass 140 

Rough-stalked  meadow  grass . . 142 

Poa  arachnif era,  Texas  blue  grass 143 

Agrostis  vulgaris,  var.  alba,  red  top 145 

Agrostis  alba,  creeping  bent  grass 148 

Agrostis  canina,  brown  bent  grass 151 

Alopecurus  pratensis,  meadow  foxtail * 152 

Anthoxanthum,  sweet  vernal  grass 153 

Lolium  perenne,  perennial  rye  grass. 159 

Italian  rye  grass. 161 

Cynodon,  Bermuda  grass 161 

Agropyrum  repens,  quack  grass 167 

Sorghum  halapense,  Johnson  grass 171 

Setaria  Italica,  Hungarian  grass 175 

Deyeuxia,  blue  joint 179 

Muhlenberg's  grass 181 

^Pennisetum  spicatum,  pearl  millet 187 

Panicum  Texanum,  Texas  millet 189 

Avena  flavescens,  yellow  oat-grass 191 

Holcus  lanatus,  velvet  grass 193 

Holcus  rnollis,  creeping  soft  grass 194 

>Cynosurus  cristatus,  crested  dog's  tail 195 


CHAPTER  VII. 

EARLY    ATTEMPTS    TO    CULTIVATE    GRASSES. 

Meadows  of  the  Romans 197 

The  first  meadows  of  Great  Britian. 198 

Progress  has  been  very  slow 199 

Why  grasses  are  not  better  known 200 

What  have  been  sown  in  Great  Britain 201 

What  have  been  sown  in  the  United  States.. .  .  204 


x  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

TESTING    SEEDS,    SOME    COMMON    WEEDS. 

PAGE 

Seed  stations  and  their  work 206 

What  sorts  usually  germinate  and  what  will  not 209 

Will  seeds  sprout  more  than  once - -  210 

How  to  procure  good  seeds - 211 

Weeds  in  the  meadow 214 

How  to  get  rid  of  weeds 224 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GRASSES     FOR    PASTURES    AND    MEADOWS. 

What  is  now  sown  in  Great  Britain.. 229 

List  of  grasses  for  the  north 232 

Grasses  for  the  south 234 

Grasses  for  winter  pasture  at  the  south , 239 


CHAPTER  X. 

PREPARATION    OF    THE    SOIL    AND    SEEDING. 

Drainage.. 240 

How  much  seed  to  sow _  240 

Sowing  the  seed 245 

Seeding  by  inoculation 247 

Seeding  grasses  with  grain 247 

Sowing  grass  without  grain 250 

Sowing  seed  where  grasses  already  occupy  the  land 254 


CHAPTER  XI. 

CARE    OF    GRASS    LANDS. 

Permanent  pastures  vs.  alternate  husbandry 250 

The  advantages  of  a  rotation  of  crops 259 

Pasture  yields  more  nourishment  than  meadow 260 

Care  of  pastures 261 

Care  of  meadows 266 

What  manures  to  apply 267 

The  battle  in  the  meadow 278 

The  effect  of  manures 275 

Green  manuring 279 

Manuring  and  drainage  improve  the  quality  of  grasses 281 

Effects  of  irrigation .  282 


CONTENTS.  xi 
CHAPTER  XII. 

MAKING  HAY. 

PAGE 

Cutting  and  curing  hay.  286 

Making  clover  hay  in  one  day 295 

Drying  by  furnace  heat  or  by  a  fan 297 

Stacking  hay 297 

Fermentation  of  new  made  hay 298 

Saving  seeds 299 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

LOOK     THE     WORLD     OVER     FOR     BETTER     GRASSES     AND     IMPROVE     THOSE 
WE    NOW    HAVE. 

Some  requisites  for  success  in  a  grass 299 

The  best  soil  and  climate  for  pasture  grasses 300 

New  grasses  for  new  or  old  stations 301 

Improving  by  selection 305 

Improving  by  cross-fertilization  of  the  flowers 306 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

GRASSES  FOR  THE  LAWN,  THE  GARDEN,  AND  FOR  DECORATION. 

The  lawn 309 

Various  mixtures  of  seeds  for  the  lawn 311 

Ornamental  grasses • 317 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE    LEGUMINOS.E,    PULSE    FAMILY. 

Pulse  family  proper 

Clover,  Trifolium.. 321 

Trifolium  pratense •_ -  323 

Early  history. 323 

Extent  of  roots - 324 

The  flower -  324 

Bumble  bees  a  great  help  in  fertilizing 325 

The  sleep  of  leaves. - - 328 


xii  CONTENTS. 

< 
PAGE 

A  little  agricultural  chemistry.. :. 339 

The  uses  and  value 330 

Red  clover  in  many  lands 334 

Clover  as  a  weed  exterminator ' 335 

Putting  in  the  seed 336 

Care  of  the  young  clover .' 337 

Winter  killing  and  remedies 338 

The  best  time  for  cutting  for  hay 338 

Saving  clover  seed 339 

Relative  value  of  dark  and  light  colored  seed 340 

Variation  of  red  clover 340 

The  model  plant 342 

Clover  sickness 843 

Hoven 344 

Alsike  clover 347 

White  clover. 348 

Crimson  or  Italian  clover 351 

Lucerne  or  alfalfa 352 

Black  and  spotted  medick 357 

Burr  clover 358 

Melilotus,  sweet  clover '. 358 

Lupine 360 

Furze  or  gorse : • 360 

Vicia,  vetch,  tare 362 

Pisum,  pea 362 

Dolichos,  cow  pea 363 

Lespedeza  striata,  Japan  clover 366 

Prickly  comfrey ,  borage 368 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE  ENEMIES  OF  GRASSES  AND  CLOVERS. 

Mice  and  shrews 369 

Moles 369 

Pocket  gophers 369 

Woodchucks 369 

Insects 370 

Insects  injurious  to  clover 371 

Hylastes  Trifolii,  clover-root  borer. 375 

Languria  Mozardi,  clover-stem  borer 378 

Phytonomus  punctatus,  clover-leaf  beetle 380 

Cecidomyia  Trifolii,  clover-leaf  midge 383 

Oscinis  Trifolii,  clover-leaf  oscinis 385 


CONTENTS.  xiii 

PAGE 

Tortrix,  sericoris,  leaf  rollers 386 

Drasteria  erechtea,  clover  drasteria 387 

Colias  philodice,  common  yellow  butterfly 388 

Insects  attacking  clover  seed 389 

Cecidomyia  leguminicola,  clover  seed  midge - 389 

Grapholitha,  clover-seed  caterpillar 392 

Asophia  costalis.  clover-hay-worm , ...  393 

Insects  injurious  to  grass  crops 395 

Lachnosterna  f usca,  May  beetle,  white  grub 402 

Agrotians,  cut  worms •_ 403 

Leucania  unipunctata,  army  worm 405 

Elaters,  wire  worms 406 

Blissus  lencopterus,  chinch  bug 408 

Caloptenus,  locusts  or  grasshoppers ...  409 

Cram  bus  vulgivagellus,  vagabond  crambus 410- 


.       CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  FUNGI  OF  FORAGE  PLANTS. 

Corn-smut. -  414 

The   leaf-smut  of  Timothy 414 

Grass-rust -  - 416 

Clover-rust 418 

Ergot f 420 

The  cat-tail  grass  fungus 

The  black-spot  disease  of  grass — 

The  black-spot  disease  of  clover 424 

The  violet  root-fungus --- - -  426 

The  grass-mildew 

The  sclerotium  disease  of  clover.. -  427 

The  grass-peronospora -  429 

The  clover-peronospora. - 

The  seedling  rot.. *.- 

Fairy-ring  fungi - - 430- 


Debris.-.. 

Bibliography • 

Index..  - 43T 


CHAPTER    I. 
THE  STRUCTURE,  FORM  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  GRASSES. 

Protoplasm  is  the  living  portion  of  a  plant.  It  is  sensitive 
to  heat  and  cold  and  is  the  essential  part  without  which  the 
cell  cannot  live,  take  in  or  assimilate  food  or  make  any  growth. 
Protoplasm  is  a  soft-solid,  generally  containing  a  multitude  of 
small  granules,  and  when  everything  is  favorable  it  is  in  unceas- 
ing motion.  Delicate  currents,  often  changing  in  direction  and 
rapidity,  are  traced  by  the  granules  which  they  carry  as  they 
gracefully  glide  from  one  part  of  the  cell  to  the  other.  Under 
the  microscope  this  motion  may  be  seen  in  the  sting  of  a  nettle, 
hair  of  a  pumpkin  vine,  style  of  Indian  corn,  or  a  hair  at  the  tip 
of  a  young  kernel  of  wheat  and  in  many  other  parts  of  plants. 
Protoplasm  is  most  abundant  in  the  newer  or  younger  portions  of 
the  roots,  stems,  leaves,  buds  and  seeds,  and  constitutes  most  of 
the  nourishment  as  food  for  herbivorous  animals.  Very  young 
cells  are  filled  with  protoplasm,  while  the  older  ones  contain  less, 
little,  or  none. 

Cells.  All  parts  of  plants,  except  a  few  very  small  one-celled 
species,  are  composed  of  cells  which  are  generally  microscopic. 
"When  any  part  of  a  plant  is  soft  and  can  be  easily  crushed  or 
broken  in  any  direction,  the  cell  walls  are  thin ;  when  it  is  hard 
the  cell  walls  are  thick ;  when  tough  like  the  fibre  of  flax,  the 
cell  walls  are  quite  long  and  have  thick  walls. 

Chlorophyll.  All  the  green  parts  of  a  plant  are  so  colored  by 
a  portion  of  the  protoplasm  called  chlorophyll,  without  which  the 
plant  is  unable  to  assimilate  any  thing  or  to  make  any  real  prog- 
ress in  growth. 


ROOTS. 


Boots.  Although  popularly  so  considered,  it  is  by  no  means 
the  case  that  all  parts  of  plants  which  grow  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  ground  are  roots.  There  are  many  stems  beneath  the 
surface  and  many  roots  above.  Boots  have  no  leaves,  and  are 
otherwise  simpler  than  stems.  They  elongate  by  a  rapid  multi- 
plication and  growth  of  the  cells  a  very  short  distance  (perhaps 
the  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  case  of  Indian  corn)  back  of  the 
extreme  tip  end.  At  such  place,  called  "  primary  meristem," 
the  cells  rapidly  increase  by  division,  some  of  which  continue  to 
remain  small  and  keep  on  dividing. 

A  portion  of  stem,  on  the  other 
hand,  usually  produces  leaves 
buds,  and  when  young  elon- 
gates by  a  multiplication  and 
growth  of  the  cells  for  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  its  length. 
The  tender,  growing  tip  of  a 
root  is  protected  as  it  pushes 
along  through  the  soil  by  a 
root-cap  consisting  of  some 
older  and  harder  cells.  As 
these  cells  wear  off,  others 
crowd  forward  and  take  their 
FIG.  i.— Longitudinal  section  through  the  places.  In  grasses  the  growth 

apex  of  a  root  of  Indian  corn,  half  of  which  * 

represents  the  cells  as  empty;  a.  a.  outer  and      •      /i         T\-ri  m  a  i-ir   ir^nf    ia    enrm 

older  portion  ot  the  root-cap;    above  this  is  Ot     the     primary   TOOt    Is    6OO11 

the  younger  portion,  just  above  which  are  .  IT 

very  small  cells  that  divide  and  make  new  overtaken   and    IS    Scarcely  dlS- 

cells  for  increasing  the  length  of  the  root 

and  replenishing  the  root-cap.-(Saclis.)  tinguisliable   f  rom    the  SCCOnd- 

aries  or  their  branches. 

Roots  perforate  the  leaf-sheaths  or  rudimentary  leaves  and 
spring  freely  from  the  nodes  or  joints  of  underground  stems  of 
June  grass,  quack  grass,  and  in  some  instances  they  grow  from 
the  nodes  or  joints  of  the  stems  above  ground,  especially  where 
they  are  moist  and  well  shaded.  All  the  secondary  roots — branch 


ROOTS.  3 

roots  from  roots  and  stems — originate  from  an  internal  layer  of 
tissue  where  there  are  fibro-vascular  bundles  and  break  through 
the  external  portions  of  the  root  or  stem. 

The  soil  has  much  to  do  with  the  length  and  number  of  roots. 
In  light,  poor  soil,  in  a  dry  time,  we  have  found  the  roots  of 
June  grass  to  extend  over  four  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

The  roots  of  grasses  are  numerous,  long,  and  fibrous,  and  when 
young  the  slender  and  delicate  tips  have  a  feeble  power  of  moving 
from  side  to  side,  which  enables  them  to  find  and  penetrate  the 
places  of  least  resistance  in  the  soil. 

Although  they  are  so  small,  it  is  estimated  that  in  most  farm 
crops,  while  growing,  the  aggregate  surface  of  the  roots  is  equal 
to  that  of  the  stems  and  leaves  above  ground.  In  hard  clay  sub- 
soil in  Central  Michigan,  oats  pushed  down  their  roots  three  feet 
four  inches,  and  those  of  barley  went  down  three  feet  nine 
inches.  In  mellow,  sandy  soil  the  roots  of  oats  extended 
four  feet  two  inches  below  the  surface  and  those  of  barley  five 
feet  six  inches.  The  famous  buffalo  grass  (Buchloe)  is  often 
mentioned  as  having  very  short  roots,  but  one  of  my  students 
found  in  Kansas  that  they  went  down  seven  feet.  The  roots 
grow  best  where-  the  best  food  is  to  be  found,  provided  there  is 
sufficient  heat  and  moisture.  They  extend  more  or  less  in  every 
direction ;  if  one  finds  food  it  flourishes  and  enlarges  and  sends 
out  numerous  branches,  and  they  in  turn  send  out  others.  If 
rich  earth  or  manure  is  placed  above  the  roots  they  will  grow 
upwards  as  well  as  downwards.  In  rich  earth  the  roots  of  grasses 
will  be  densely  matted ;  in  sterile  soil  they  will  be  longer,  with 
fewer  branches.  Where  the  food  is  best,  there  we  shall  find  the 
most  roots.  Roots  cannot  be  accredited  with  any  faculty  which 
enables  them  to  search  for  food  as  an  animal  hunts  its  prey. 

The  roots  of  all  the  grasses  and  most  other  flowering  plants 
while  in  a  growing  condition  are  well  supplied  with  Trichomes 
Or  root-hairs  which  vastly  increase  their  surface. 


ROOT-HAIRS. 


Root-hairs  are  continuations  of  some  of  the  outer  cells  of  the 
younger  roots  and  are  brought  into  very  close  contact  with  the 
particles  of  soil.  Their  number  depends  much  on  the  nature 
of  the  medium  in  which  the  roots  are  grown.  Where  the  soil  is 
rich,  moist  and  porous,  root-hairs  are  abundant.  They  are  very 
short-lived,  often  lasting  only  for  a  few  days,  new  hairs  from 
other  rootlets  taking  their  places. 

The  upper  and 
older  portions  of  the 
roots  merely  serve 
to  hold  the  plant  in. 
position  and  act  a& 
conductors  for  the 
transmission  of 
matter  to  the  leaves, 
of  the  plant  and 
some  of  it  back 
again  to  the  newer 
roots.  The  reader 
should  consult  fig- 
ure 2,  representing- 
a  young  wheat  plant 
carefully  lifted  with 
the  sand  which  is 
held  fast  by  its  close 
contact  with  the 
root-hairs.  The 
tips  of  the  roots  have 
not  put  forth  hairs- 
and  hence  they  are 

FIG.  2.  —  Rixrts  of   young       FIG.  3.— Plant  a  little  older  still  naked, 

wheat  plant  lifted  from  the  with    soil    clinging    to    the 

soil,  holding  soil  by  the  root-  younger    parts,  but    not  to        FiffUre     3     1'Cpre- 

hairs    excepting     near    the  the  older  parts  as  there  the 

apex  where  the  hairs  have  root-hairs  have  perished.          COT1fa  ^Y,^  rnnfs   nf    a 
not  yet  been  produced. 


THE   STEM.  5 

wheat  plant  still  older  than  the  one  shown  in  the  previous  figure. 
Here  the  root-tips  are  naked  and  the  older  roots  fail  to  retain  the 
particles  of  soil  because  the  hairs  have  perished.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  root-hairs  are  confined  to  the  younger  portions  of  the 
roots,  beginning  a  little  back  from  the  tip. 

These  hairs  look  somewhat  like  mould  or  a  mass  of  spider's 
webs  and  can  be  easily  seen  where  Indian  corn  or  wheat  is  sprouted 
between  folds  of  damp  cloth  or  paper.  They  are  the  chief 
agents  for  absorbing  water  and  gases  from  the  soil. 

Root-hairs  not  only  take  up  substances  held  in  solution,  but 
ihrough  their  acid  act  on  solid  substances  and  render  them  soluble. 

They  also  obtain  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrates,  which  to  some 
•extent  are  formed  in  the  soil  through  the  action  of  bacteria,  the 
lowest  and  simplest  and  smallest  of  plants. 

The  root-hairs  nearly  or  quite  all  perish  when  a  plant  is  at  rest 
or  ceases  to  grow,  but  when  growth  begins  again  it  sends  out  new. 
Tootlets  which  produce  new  root-hairs. 

Trichomes  are  usually  found  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  on. 
stems,  leaves,  and  even  on  some  parts  of  the  flower. 

The  Stem.  The  ascending  axis  or  stem  of  a  grass  is  called  the 
•culm.  Some  grasses  produce  stems  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  or 
oeneath  it ;  these  are  called  rhizomes  or  root-stocks.  They  often 
T^ear  roots  and  sheathing  scales,  or  rudimentary  leaves  with  good 
buds,  as  is  seen  in  June  grass  and  quack  grass. 

The  full  grown  culms  of  nearly  all  grasses  are  hollow,  with  solid 
or  knotted  joints  called  nodes.  When  very  young  the  inter  nodes 
or  spaces  between  the  nodes  are  solid,  and  even  when  full  grown 
they  are  solid  in  most  root-stocks,  and  in  the  culms  above  ground 
of  such  grasses  as  Indian  corn,  broom  corn,  sorghum,  and  sugar- 
cane. In  case  of  Phleum  pratense  (Timothy),  Poa  bulbosa, 
Arrhenatherum,  avenaceum  (tall  oat  grass),  some  of  the  lower 
short  internodes  become  enlarged  and  contain  a  store  of  nourish- 


6  THE  STEM. 

merit.  Such  grasses  are  called  bulbous,  though  the  term  tuber  or 
corm  would  be  more  nearly  accurate. 

The  culms  of  most  grasses  produce  branches,  especially  from 
the  lower  nodes  near  the  ground.  This  branching  is  popularly 
called  tillering,  or  stooling,  or  mooting,  and  is  familiar  in  the 
case  of  wheat,  oats,  and  rye,  where  one  kernel  not  unfrequently 
produces  twenty  or  more  culms.  Tillering  is  favored  by  shallow, 
thin  seeding.  Grasses  are  generally  erect,  though  some  are  trail- 
ing; one  or  more  climb  over  trees  100  feet  high;  others,  like 
Leersia  (rice,  cut-grass),  are  feeble  climbers  or  sustain  themselvea 
on  plants  by  means  of  numerous  hooked  prickles  on  their  leaves. 

Buds  are  undeveloped  leaf  or  flower  branches,  and  one  or  more 
may  be  looked  for  at  every  node.  The  apex  of  the  young  stem 
is  covered  by  the  young  leaves. 

The  nodes  are  usually  swollen  or  larger  than  the  internodes, 
but  seldom  have  a  length  very  much  greater  than  their  diameter. 
The  nodes  remain  short  when  the  culm  is  erect,  but  if  by  any 
accident  or  otherwise  the  culm  is  tipped  over,  the  nodes  at  once 
become  longer  on  the  lower  side,  and  this  curves  the  culm  towards 
an  erect  position.  In  this  way,  to  some  extent,  lodged  wheat  or 
other  grasses  can  again  partially  regain  their  former  position. 
At  least,  in  most  cases,  the  blossoms  may  be  turned  up  from  the 
ground. 


FIG.  4.— A  part  of  a  cross-section  of  wheat  straw.  A,  fibro- vascular  bundles ;  D~ 
fundamental  tissue  made  of  thin-walled  cells  with  hexagonal  outlines,  x  75.— (Mrs, 
L.  R.  Stowell.) 

When  quite  young  each  internode  elongates,  by  the  multiplica- 


THE  STEM.  7 

tion  and  enlargement  of  the  cells  throughout  its  whole  length, 
but  as  it  gets  older  elongation  for  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
internode  ceases,  and  finally  there  comes  a  time  when  the  culm 
is  incapable  of  further  elongation.  If  taken  in  hand  when  young, 
and  properly  shaded,  a  stem  may  be  made  to  grow  to  an  almost 
indefinite  length.  The  lower  portion  of  an  internode  of  most 
grasses,  the  part  within  the  leaf -sheath,  remains  soft  and  continues 
to  grow  for  a  considerable  time  after  the  upper  and  main  portion 
has  lost  this  power. 


FIG.  5.— A  cross-section  of  fibro- vascular  bundle  of  Indian  corn :  o,  side  of  bnndle 
looking  toward  the  circumference  of  the  stem  ;  i,  side  of  bundle  toward  the  center  of 
stem ;  p,  thin- walled  cells  of  fundamental  tissues  of  stem ;  {/,  a,  large  pitted  vessels ;  8, 
spiral  Vessel;  r,  one  ring  of  an  annular  vessel  :  ?,  air  cavity  formed  by  the  breaking 
apart  of  the  surrounding  cells  :  c,  r,  latticed  cells,  or  soft  bast,  a  form  of  sieve  tissue, 
x  550.— (After  Sachs ;  notes  after  Bessey.) 


THE  STEM. 


The  young  stem  of  a  grass  when  cut  across  will  be  found 
to  contain  numerous  threads  (fibro-vascular  bundles]  scattered 
from  the  center  to  the  circumference.  An  epidermis  covers  the 
whole.  In  many  instances,,  as  the  stem  enlarges,  the  inside  is 
ruptured  and  a  hollow  is  formed. 

Neither  roots  nor  leaves  could  last  long  without  each  other. 

The  slender  branches  of  the 
panicles  of  Sporobolus  hetero- 
lepis,  a  grass  common  on  the 
prairies  of  the  west,  are  cov- 
ered in  places  with  a  gummy 
excretion  which  entraps  small 
insects.  Dr.  Bessey  in  the 
American  Katuralist,  p.  420, 
1884,  suggests  that  they  may 
serve  the  same  purpose  as  the 
similar  sticky  belts  in  Silene 
or  catch-fly,  viz. :  to  entrap 
crawling  insects  and  prevent 
them  from  reaching  the  flow- 
ers which  they  are  incapable 
of  fertilizing. 

The  naked  portions  of  the 
internodes  of  Tragus  race- 
mosus  var.  occidentalis,  a  wild 
grass  of  Arizona,  are  furnished 
with  a  sticky  substance.  The 
specimens  examined  are-  cov- 
ered with  many  particles  of 
sand  and  dust. 

The  main  uses  of  the  stem 
appear  to  be  to  convey  the  sap 
to  or  from  the  leaves,  to  sup- 
Fro.  6.— Represents  a  young  stem  of  Festuca  ~.-.._+     fi,a    lpoVp<5     nnrl 
as  it  branches  at  the  base.— (Hackel.)  Port     tne     leaves     ana 


THE  LEAF.  9 

them  in  every  direction,  giving  each  its  share  of  room  and  ex- 
posure to  light  and  air,  and  to  bear  the  flowers  and  seeds. 

"  The  stem,  in  fact,  is  the  agency  by  which  the  work  of  indi- 
vidual leaves  is  combined  and  concentrated  for  the  general  benefit 
of  the  plant.  Each  separate  leaf,  like  each  separate  cell,  has  a 
life  of  its  own,  and  to  some  extent  is  independent  of  every  other 
leaf ;  but  if  they  are  to  be  of  any  use  to  the  plant  as  a  whole,  there 
must  be  cooperation."  (Master's  Plant  Life.) 

The  explanation  for  the  ascent  and  movement  of  the  "sap"  in 
plants  is  by  no  means  simple  and  easy.  The  swaying  of  the 
stems,  branches,  and  leaves  by  the  wind  renders  some  assistance. 
The  chemical  changes  going  on  within  the  plant  cause  some 
movements  of  the  liquid  materials.  The  evaporation  from  the 
leaves  helps  "draw"  the  water  and  gases  from  below  to  ascend 
and  fill  the  spaces  which  would  otherwise  be  vacant.  "  There  is 
no  continuous  tube  or  set  of  tubes,  and  there  is  no  fluid  of  uni- 
formly the  same  composition  throughout.  Near  the  root  the 
juice  of  the  plant  has  one  composition,  near  the  leaf  another. 
The  word  'sap,'  then,  though  convenient,  must  not  be  used  or 
conceived  of  as  indicating  the  existence  of  a  current  absolutely 
fixed  in  its  direction  or  uniform  in  its  composition."  (Master's 
Plant  Life.) 

The  Leaf.  Springing  from  the  superficial  part  of  each  node, 
and  generally  completely  surrounding  the  culm,  appears  a  leaf, 
the  sheath  or  lower  part  of  which  is  generally  convolute  or  wrapped 
around  the  culm.  The  leaves  are  two-ranked  or  distichous,  and 
are  so  placed  that  each  leaf  is  a  little  above  or  below  any  special 
one  selected  and  exactly  half  way  around  the  stem,  where  the 
blade  spreads  away  from  the  stem.  LTsually  there  is  one  leaf 
at  a  node,  but  in  Cynodon  Dactylon  (Bermuda  grass),  Sporobolus 
arenariiis,  and  a  few  others,  there  are  apparently  two  or  three  at 
a  node  distichously  placed  above  each  other. 

The  Sheaths  of  the  leaves  are  usually  spoken  of  as  split  on 


10  THE  BLADE. 

the  side  opposite  the  blade,  though  exceptional  cases  are  cited 
where  the  sheaths  are  closed,  as  in  Bromus  (chess),  Melica 
(melic  grass),  and  some  others.  The  sheaths  of  the  upper  leaves 
of  most  grasses  are  split  down  to  the  node,  but  those  of  the  lower 
leaves  in  very  many  species  are  closed.  In  some  cases  the  sheaths 
are  closed  at  an  early  stage  of  development,  but  later  they  are 
split  open  part  of  the  way  down  by  the  enlargement  of  the  grow- 
ing culm  and  the  young  leaves  as  they  push  upwards.  This  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  7. 


sheaths  closed.    1  x  id.— (Sudworth.) 

At  the  upper  end  of  the  sheath  there  is  often  a  membranous 
scale,  tongue,  or  fringe,  called  the  ligule.  The  reader  will  con- 
sult Fig.  51,  and  observe  the  ligule  of  a  leaf  of  June  grass.  That 
part  of  the  leaf,  which  spreads  away  from  the  culm,  is  known 
as  the 

Blade  or  lamina,,  and  is  usually  sessile  and  slender,  tapering  to  a 
point. 

To  the  ordinary  observer  the  blades  of  grasses  seem  to  be  very 
nearly  alike.  Even  Linnaeus  thought  so,  but  to  the  botanist  of 
to-day  they  present  very  marked  differences. 

The  abortive  leaves  on  root-stocks,  generally  consist  mainly  of 
rudimentary  sheaths.  Commonly,,  all  the  leaves  on  a  stem  are 
much  alike,  but  in  some  cases  the  lower  leaves  are  quite  unlike 
those  above.  The  lower  leaves  of  some  species  of  Bambusa 
(bamboo),  Oryzopsis  asperifolia  (mountain  rice),  Panicum 


THE  BLADE.  It 

dichotomum  and  others,  have  well  developed  sheaths,  but  the 
blades  are  rudimentary. 

The  blades  of  some  leaves,  like  those  of  Leersia  (rice  cut  grass) 
and  Zizania  (wild  rice),  are  not  quite  symmetrical,  or  in  other 
words,  the  midrib  is  not  quite  in  the  middle  of  the  blade. 

The  blades  of  many  grasses  after  getting  something  of  a  start,. 
may  continue  to  elongate  or  they  may  cease  to  grow.  In  case 
of  Poa  pratensis  (June  grass),  Dactylis  glomerata  (orchard 
grass),  and  many  more,  there  seems  to  be  scarcely  any  limit  to- 
the  length  they  may  attain.  .  In  a  damp  season,  when  the  leaves 
were  sheltered  by  a  hedge,  the  writer  selected  a  leaf  of  June 
grass,  still  green  and  vigorous  to  the  end,  in  which  the  blade  was 
five  feet  and  four  inches  long.  The  place  of  growth  for  such 
leaves  is  a  rather  light  green  semi-circle  near  the  ligule.  The 
tip  of  such  a  leaf -blade  is  the  oldest  portion.  The  lower  portion 
may  continue  to  grow  as  the  end  is  cropped  by  cattle. 

The  blade  always  has  upper  and  lower  surfaces  unlike  each 
other.  Some  leaves  are  convolute  (rolled  into  a  cylinder),  while 
some  are  conduplicate  (or  folded),  like  the  two  halves  of  a  book,, 
shutting  against  each  other. 

When  very  dry,  conduplicate  leaves  may  become  convolute,  and 
between  conduplicate  and  convolute  vernation,  we  have  all  pos- 
sible gradations  passing  insensibly  into  each  other.  Some  leaves,, 
as  those  of  Lolium  rigidum,  are  conduplicate  towards  the  apex,, 
and  convolute  towards  the  base. 

Leaves  of  many  exogenous  plants,  like  most  of  our  trees  and 
shrubs,  drop  by  separating  from  the  stem  at  a  natural  joint,  but 
the  leaves  of  most  grasses  may  die,  become  brown  and  dry,  and 
still  remain  attached  to  the  culm.  The  leaves  of  a  few  grasses,, 
as  the  bamboos  and  Spartina  (cord  grass),  have  blades  with  an 
articulation  or  joint  at  the  base;  and  some  leaves  have  petioles,, 
as  Pharus,  Pariana,  and  Leptaspis. 


1:3 


THE  BLADE. 


Some  leaf-blades,as  those  of 
Panicum  Crus-galli  (barn- 
yard grass),  P.  plicatum, 
many  species  of  Sorghum, 
taper  each  way,  and  are  lin- 
ear lanceolate,  but  they  have 
as  many  bundles  at  the  base 
as  in  the  middle.  They  are 
like  Fig.  8,  only  in  disguise. 

Transverse  veins  are  vis- 
ible to  the  eye  in  Panicum 
Crus-galli,  Cliloris,  Bambusa 
(bam boo),  and  in  most  others 
they  are  found  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  but  they  are 
not  often  conspicuous. 


FIG.  8.— Leaf-blade  of  A.rundo  dnnax,  in  which 
•the  nbro-vascular  bundles,  one  after  another, 
leave  the  mid-rib  for  the  blade,  and  those  along 
the  margin  terminate  before  reaching  the  apex. 
— (Duval-Jouve.) 

FIG  12.— Parallel  veined  leaf  of  Poatrivialis.— 
(Duval-Jouve.) 

FIG.  13.— Leaf-blade  of  Panicum  Crus-galll 
(barn-yard  grass),  tapering  each  way  from  the 
middle.— (Duval-Aouve.) 

Some  leaves  are  quite  firm  and  remain 
green  all  winter,  even  with  considerable 
cold  and  exposure,  while  others  with  a 
little  protection,  will  remain  green  for  a 
whole  year.  Most  annual  grasses  and  some  perennials  are  very 
sensitive  and  quickly  perish  and  fade  on  the  approach  of  a  frost. 
.Some  grasses  will  make  growth  at  a  low  temperature,  and  start 


FIG.  9.— Cross  sections  of  a 
large  mid-rib  of  the  leaf  of 
Zizania  aquatica;  a,  near  the 
base:  h.  farther  up  near  the 
middle;  c,  still  nearer  the 
apex,  where  most  of  the  bun- 
dles have  passed  into  the 
blade.  1  x6.— (Sudworth). 


MINUTE  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  LEAF. 


early  in  spring ;  others  need  more  heat  and  start  slowly.  To  * 
limited  extent,  the  less  moisture  plants  contain,  the  more  cold 
they  will  endure  without  injury.  When  green  leaves  are  exposed; 
to  severe  cold,  if  the  thawing  be  gradual,  in  many  cases  they  will 
not  be  injured,  but  some  plants  quickly  perish  with  frost,  no> 
matter  how  slowly  it  is  removed. 

Minute  Structure  of  the  Leaf. — The  blade  is  traversed  longi- 
tudinally by  fibro-vascular  bundles,  which  may  be  distinguished 
as  primaries,  those  the  most  complete,  and  those  less  complete, 
as  secondaries  and  tertiaries.  The  bundle  is  reenforced  by  a 
nerve  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf.  That  in  the  middle  of  the 
leaf  is  usually  the  largest,  and  is  called  the  mid-vein,  mid-rib,, 
or  keel. 

At  the  base  of  a  broad  leaf,  such  as  that  of  Indian  corn,  there- 
is  a  large  concave  mid-rib,  which  contains  many  fibro-vascular 
bundles.  Following  the  mid-rib  towards  the  apex  of  the  leaf,, 
we  shall  see  that  one  after  another  of  these  fibro-vascular  bundles 
leaves  the  mid-rib  and  passes  into  the  blade.  The  outer  bundles 
in  the  lower  part  disappear  in  the  margin  of  the  leaf,  the  central 
ones  only,  extending  to  the  apex. 


us.  -  (  Sud- 


FIG.  11.—  Section  of  a  leaf  of  Andro- 
pogon  lanigerum,  where  the  whole  blade 
is  reduced  to  what  answers  to  the  chan- 
nelled mid-rib  of  Zea  mays.  1x35.  — 
(Duval-Jouve.) 

The  blade  of  a  leaf  of   Poa  pra- 

(June  grass>  and  others>  hav& 
veingj    which   are   exactly  parallel, 


14 


THE  EPIDERMIS. 


excepting  very  near  the  tip,  where  there  is  an  abrupt  boat-shaped 
point. 

On  viewing  a  thin,  magnified  transverse  section  of  a  mature 
leaf  of  Sesleria  ccerulea,  we  see :  an  outer  envelope  of  cells  called 
the  epidermis,  e;  fibro-vascular  bundles,  more  or  less  developed ;  ~b, 
the  median  bundle,  h,  h,  lateral  bundle's :  groups  of  long,  thick- 
walled  cells  in  certain  places 
beneath  and  next  to  the  ep- 
idermis of  the  upper  and 
lower  sides,  called  the  hy- 
podermal  fibers;  a,  the  lower 
median  fiber,  d,  the  upper 
median  fiber,  c,  d,  lateral 
groups  of  hypodermal  -fibers. 
The  other  cells  are  paren- 
chyma, most  of  which  con- 
tain granules  of  chloro- 
phyll. The  vacancy  is  an 
air-chamber  or  canal,  la- 

Fio.  14. — Part  of  a  transverse  section  of  a  leaf 

of  Sesleria  ccei-ulea  including  the  middle;  a,  mid-  cuild,  I.      Ill  aquatic  grasses 
die  hypodermal  fibre ;   b,  middle  fibro-vancular 

bundle;  c,  d,  lateral  groups  of  hypodermal  fibers;  4-KaQa  oi-p  plinmbprs  arp  much 
e,  epidermis ;  /,  buMiform,  cells,  where  the  blade  these  air-CliamDerS  are 
is  closed ;  g,  tlie  same  where  the  blade  is  spread  , 
open ;  h,  h,  lateral  tibm-vascular  bundles ;  t,  air  larger, 
canal,  lacuna.    1  x  130.  —  (Duval-Jouve.) 


The  Epidermal  System  consists  of : , 

a.  Epidermis  proper. 

b.  Bulliform  (blister)  cells. 

c.  Stomata. 

d.  Trichomes. 

The  Epidermis  proper  consists  of  a  single  layer  of  cells,  the 
length  of  which  seldom  very  much  exceeds  three  or  four  times  the 
width  or  thickness.  The  two  latter  dimensions  usually  are  not 
very  dissimilar. 


THE  EPIDERMIS. 


iu 


The  cells  of  the  epidermis 
adapted  to  dry,  hot  climates 
are  very  thick,,  and  the  cells 
of  those  adapted  only  to 
moist  air  are  thin,  while  the 
cells  of  the  same  species  may 

much    ill  thickness,  de- 


FIG.  15. — Sections  of  a  leaf  or  Featucn  oriiia  var. 
sheep's  fescue);  a,  from  a  plant  grown 

-. .  ...  —  ohade  with  plenty  of  moisture;  h,  from  a 

pending    011  a  greater  or  less  Plant  grown  in  greater  heat,  with  much  light 
and  little  moisture.    1  x  180.-(E.  Hackel). 

exposure  to  light,  heat,  and  moisture. 


FIG.  16.— This  gives  some  notion  of  the  appearance  of  the  epidermis  of  Poa  pratenste 
(June  grass);  a,  cross  section  of  blade;  1>,  seen  from  the  upper  side;  c,  over  the  hypo- 
dermal  fibers;  d,  rows  of  stomata;  6,  bands  of  cells  over  parenchyma.  1x150.— (Sud- 
worth). 


BULLIFORM  CELLS, 

The  Bulliform  Cells  are  in 

longitudinal,  parallel  lines;  they 
are  larger  and  extend  further  into 
the  leaf  than  ordinary  epidermal 
cells. 

Where  the  epidermis  covers  the 
hypodermal  fibers,  it   consists  of 
long,  thick-walled  cells,  which  are 
_  Young  stoma  of  a  leaf  of  usually  more  abundant  on  the  lower 

Indian  corn;  b,  older  stoma;  c,  mature 

stoma.  ix350.-(Sudworth).  than  on  the  upper  surface.  Some- 

times they  are  reduced  to  two  small  rows,  or  rarely  disappear 
entirely.  Sometimes  the  Jiypodermal  fibers 
cover  all  the  lower  side  of  a  leaf,  as  in  many 
species  of  Festuca.  In  such  cases  there  may 
be  none,  a  few,  or  many  on  the  upper  side, 
or  it  may  be  entirely  covered,  excepting  a 
few  lines  on  the  sides  of  the  veins  where  the 
stomata  are  found. 

The   cells    of    the  bands    covering    the 

pie  leaf.  Calamagrnstfamin-  . 

ima.  1x50.— (Duvai-Jouve.)  parenchyma  are  larger  than  those  which  are 
over  the  veins  or  hypodermal  fibres.  On  the  upper  surface  of  the 
leaf,  these  bands  are  often  cut  in  two  by  bulliform  cells. 

The  Stomata  (small  mouths)  are  in  regular  rows,  placed 
longitudinally  on  certain  parts  of  the  leaf,  and  are  always  devel- 
oped over  a  small  cavity.  The  plan  seems  to  be  the  same  for  all 
grasses.  In  some  species  the  stomata  are  all  above,  in  others  all 
below,  while  some  have  them  on  both  sides. 


FIG.  18.— Showing  a  trans- 
verse section  of  a  very  sim- 


Trichomes. — Some  single  cells  or  groups  of  cells  of  the  epi- 
dermis, extend  and  become  trichomes,  which  are  straight  or 
curved,  stout  or  feeble.  They  are  real  epidermal  cells,  and  are 
not  prolongations  from  the  outer  part  of  a  cell,  as  is  the  case 


HAIRS  ON  THE  LEAF. 


17 


with  a  root-hair.  They  usually  point  to  the  apex  of  a  leai  or 
stem,  but  in  Leersia  (rice-cut  grass),  they  point  downward, 
and  become  stout  supporting  hooks. 

Tragus  racemo- 
s  us,  A  mphicarp  u  m 
Pursldi,  P  ani- 
cum  capillare 
(hair  grass)  and 
others,  have  stout 
hairs  on  the  mar- 
gins of  the  leaf. 
On  some  smooth 

Ipflvoc  +Tio  liairc  FlG-  19.— Part  of  a  cross  section  of  Melica  strfcto,  showing 
leaves,  tJ  nairs,  niany  stiff  hairs.  1x34.— (Sudworth.) 

when  young,  drop  off  and  leave  scars  which  alternate  with  the 
larger  cells  of  the  epidermis. 


Bulliform  Cells. — We  will  now  consider  more  in  detail  the 
bands  of  bulliform  (blister)  cells  which  are  larger  than  other 
cells  of  the  epidermis,  and  have  thinner  walls.  They  have  also 


18 


BULLIFORM  CELLS. 


been  called  hygroscopic 
cells.  They  are  usually 
more  or  less  wedge-shap- 
ed, with  the  point  of  the 
wedge  towards  the  out- 
side of  the  lea*.  In  Zea 
mays  (Indian  corn) 
these  cells  are  raised 

FIG.  20.— This  illustrates  the  cross  section  at  the     , 

margin  of  a  leaf  of  Amphicarjmm  Purshii,  shown  in  above      the     other      ceils 
three  places,  at  o,  there  is  a  growth  of  peculiar  cells 

surrounding  the  base  of  a  hair,  at  ft,  we  have  another  anc[     pug      out       }ike     a 
view,  and  at  c,  where  no  hair  is  seen,  the  large  group 
of  hypodermal  fibers  is  covered  by  an  ordinary  epi-  i  i  •   >nv 
dennis.    1  x  40.-(Sudworth.)  blister. 

When  viewed  on  the  surface  of 
the  leaf,  the  bulliform  cells  are 
usually  seen  to  have  the  propor- 
tions of  length  and  width  much 

some 

FIG  21.— A  portion  of  a  cross-section  ,  ,,  ,  ., 

of  a  leaf  of  Zea  mays,  showing  one  cases  these  cells  are  as  long  as  wide, 

band  of  bulliform  cells  raised  above 

the  surface,  i  x i7.-(Sudworth.)          wjth  outlines  somewhat  wavy. 

The  number  of  rows  in  a  species  is  always  the  same,  but  varies 
with  the  species  from  3-12  in  a  band.  If  there  are  many  rows, 
the  cells  are  shallow ;  if  few  rows,  the  cells  are  deep ;  if  three 
only,  those  at  the  side  are  small,  and  the  middle  one  is  very  large. 
The  arrangement  of  these  cells  is  invariable  in  a  species,  but  in 
a  genus  they  vary  much.  The  following  examples  are  given  : 


^^—^  ^_ 

like  those  next  to  then,  In 


FIG.  23.— Cross-section  of  a  leaf  of  Ownodon  Dactyton,  showing  a  very  large  bullifo 
cell,  with  one  or  two  small  ones  on  each  side  of  it.    1  x  130.— (Sudworth). 


BULLIFORM  CELLS. 


FIG.  23.— Cross-section  of  part  of  a  leaf  of 
Dactylis  glomerata  showing  one  band  of  bulli- 
form  cells  on  the  upper  side  of  the  middle. 
1  -  38.-(Sudworth). 


1°.  The  leaves  of  Dactylis 
glomerata  (orchard  grass  or 
cock's  foot)  have  one  median 
hand  of  bulliform  cells. 

2°.  In   Chloris  petrcea,  and 
others    there   is    one    middle  1 
band,  and  one  or  more  on  each  side. 

3°.  The  leaves  of  Poa 
pratensis  (June  grass)  and 
some  others  have  two  bands, 
one  each  side  of  the  middle. 

4°.  In  case  of  Andropogon 
squarrosum  and  others 
there  is  one  band  each  side  FlQ.  24.-A  cross-section  of  part  of  a  leaf  of 

,    ,.  .,,,  ,  ,,    Poa  pratensis  (June  grass)  showing  one  band  of 

Of  the  middle  and    a    Small   bulliform  cells  each  side  of  the  middle.    1  x  75. 
— (Sudworth). 

one  at  each  edge. 


FIG.  25.— A  portion  of  a  cross  section  of  a  leaf  of  Phleum  prateme  (Timothy),  show- 
ing bands  of  bulliform  cells  on  each  side  the  middle,  and  others  between  the  veins. 
1  x  20.-(Sudworth.) 

5°.  The  leaves  of  Phleum  pratense( Timothy),  and  many  others 
have  one  band  of  several  shallow  cells  each  side  the  middle,  and 
others  between  the  veins. 

6°.  The  leaves  of  Zea  mays  (Indian  corn),  and  many  others, 
have  a  band  between  each  two  primary  bundles,  and  above  each 
tertiary  bundle. 


20 


BULLIFORM  CELU3. 


FIG.  26.— A  section  of  Festuca,  gigantea,  similar  to  the  previous  figure.    1 
(Hackei). 


30.— 


7°.  The  leaves  of  Leersia  oryzoides  (rice  cut-grass),  have  nu- 
merous bands  of  bullif orm  cells  on  the  upper  surface,  each  side  of 
the  middle,  and  one  band  each  side  of  the  keel  on  the  lower  side. 


FIG.  27.— Transverse  section  of  a  leaf  of  Leersia  oryzoides  (rice  cut-grass),  showing 
side  of  the  keel.    1  x  330.-(Duval-Jouve)Pf 


lateral  bands  of  bulliform  cells  on  the  upper  side,  and  one  lateral  band  below  on  each. 


a  oryzoi 
,  and  on 


8°.  The  leaves  of  Ampliicarpum  Purshii  and  others,  have 
opposite  bands  of  bulliform  cells  on  both  surfaces  of  the  leaf, 
though  those  above  are  the  most  prominent. 


FIG.  28.— Transverse  section  of  a  leaf  of  Amphicarpum  PursMi,  showing  opposite 
bands  of  bulliform  cells  on  both  surfaces.    1  x  25.— (Sudworth). 


BULLIFORM  CELLS. 


21 


9°.  In  the  leaves  of  Panicum  plicatum,  the  bands  of  bulli- 
form  cells  are  first  on  the  upper  side  and  then  on  the  lower,  and 
.are  found  in  the  grooves. 


FIG.  29.— Transverse  section  of  a  blade  of  Panicum  plicatum,  in  which  the  bulli- 


form  cells  are  alternately  above  and  be 


FIG.  30.— Section  of  a  leaf  of 
prinoides, where  the  bulliform  cells  are  evenly 
distributed,  excepting  over  the  veins.  1  x50. 
— (Duval-Jouve). 


1  x  10. —(Duval-Jouve). 

10°.  In  case  of  Andropogon 
prinoides,  and  other  species, 
these  cells  are  of  nearly  uni- 
form size,  and  distributed  all 
along  the  upper  surface,  ex- 
cepting over  the  veins. 


FIG.  31.— Section,  through  the  middle,  of  a  leaf  of  . 
ular  epidermis  and  many  bulliform  cells.    1 x  50- — ( 


;wm,  showing  trreg- 


FIG.  32.— Part  of  a  transverse  section  of  a  leaf  of  Trachiipognn  polymorphus,  showing 
small  epidermal  and  very  large  bulliform  cells.    1  x  50.— (Sudworl  h.) 


BULLIFOEM  CELLS. 


FIG.  33.— Part  of  a  section  of  the  leaf  of  Munroa  squarrosa,  showing  three  groups  of 
large  bullif orm  cells,  extending  far  into  the  blade.    1  x  50.— (Sud worth.* 


FIG.  34.— Part  of  a  section,  including  mid-rib,  of  a  leaf  of  Cathestechum  erectum, 
showing  two  groups  of  bulliform  cells  extending  two-thirds  of  the  way  across  the 
leaf.  1x280.— (Sud  worth.) 


Fro.  35.— Section  of  part  of  a  leaf  of  JBpicompes  Wfifutata,  showing  five  groups  of  bul- 
cells.    1x50.— (Sudworth.) 


MOVEMENTS  OF  LEAVES. 


In  vernation  (while  the  leaf  is  very 
young  in  the  bud)  the  leaves  take  the 
same  positions  as  when  full  grown  and 
dried,  though  the  bulliform  cells  at  that 
time,  are  very  small,  as  we  should  ex- 
pect. The  very  young  leaves  of  Dactylis 
glomerata  (orchard  grass)  and  Poapraten- 
sis  (June  grass)  are  conduplicate,  while 
those  of  Phleum  pratense  vlimothy),  are 
convolute.  Some  young  leaves  combine 

these  two  modes  more  or  less,  and  may 

FIG.  30.— A  cross  section  of 
be  conduplicate  in  the  middle  and  con-  young  leaf  of  Aira  caespitosa, 

showing  its  mode  of  vernation 

volute  on  the  margins.  within  the  sheath.   1x33. 

The  Movements  of  the  leaves  of  some  Leguminosae  are  very 
quick,  in  most  grasses  they  are  quite  slow,  depending  on  the  light 
and  change  of  moisture.  In  the  blades  of  grass  the  motion  when 
drying,  consists  in  the  approach  of  the  sides  when  conduplicate, 
or  in  rolling  or  unrolling  when  convolute  .  and  in  tortion  when 
turning  the  lower  surface  to  the  sun. 

In  1858,  Mr.  Duvol-Jouve  was  surprised  to  see  the  leaves  of 
Leersia  oryzoides  (rice  cut-grass),  move  quite  quickly,  as  he 
brushed  them.  The  motion  begins  at  the  apex  and  extends  down 
to  the  base,  and  is  convolute  when  closed.  Other  species  of  this 
genus  behave  in  like  manner,  as  also  does  Sesleria  coerulea. 

A  drop  of  water  on  the  section  of  the  leaf  of  the  latter  causes 
it  to  expand  instantly.  The  same  is  true  of  a  leaf  of  Poa 
pratensis  or  of  Dactylis.  Some  leaves  open  very  slowly  and  then 
only  when  quite  moist,  as  in  case  of  Lygeum  sparteum,  or  Nardus 
stricta. 

The  annual  species  of  ^'raand  Chamagrostis  minima  are  abso- 
lutely destitute  of  motion. 

Many  remain  rolled  up  when  dry,  and  unroll  at  night  when 


24 


MOVEMENTS  OF  LEAVES. 


the  dew  is  on,  while  others  rarely  ever  open  at  all,  but  remain 
closed. 

The  leaves  of  Leersia  (rice  cut-grass)  are -most  instructive  with 
their  bullif  orm  cells  above  and  below.  These  penetrate  the  blade 
deeply  and  make  it  very  sensitive.  In  a  warm  day  a  brisk  rub, 
or  more  than  one  between  thumb  and  finger,  causes  it  to  close  in  a 
few  seconds.  After  a  short  interval  the  leaf  opens  again,  when  it 
will  be  ready  to  respond  to  the  same  experiment. 

The  leaves  of  Panicum  plicatum,  when  dry,  close  in  a  zigzag 
manner  like  a  fan. 

The  bullif  orm  cells  of  the  leaves  of  Phleum  pratense  (Timothy) 
and  Alopecurus  pratensis  (meadow  foxtail)  are  not  very  large, 
and  do  not  penetrate  deeply.  Such  leaves  are  not  good  "  rollers. " 

In  case  of  leaves  like  Sporobolus  and  others,  the  bulliform 
cells  are  large,  the  groups  numerous,  and  penetrate  deeply. 
These  leaves  are  likely  to  remain  rolled  up  for  a  good  portion  of 
the  time,  unless  the  weather  is  very  moist. 


FKJ.  37.— Transverse  section  of  a  small 
portion  of  a  blade  of  Sporobolus  cryp- 
tandrus  showing  bulliform  cells,  in 
which  there  is  a  single  large  one, 
deeply  penetrating  and  some  smaller 
Cecils  at  the  side.  1  *  175.— (Sudworth.) 


FIG.  38.-Section  of  a  leaf -blade 
of  Hierochloa  alpina.  1x24. 
(Sudworth.) 


FIG.  39.— Section  of  a  leaf-blade  of  Stipa  spartca,  well  adapted  for  closing  ii 
weather.    1  x  34. -(Sudworth.) 


FIBRO- VASCULAR  BUNDLES.  25 


FIG.  40.— Section  of  a  blade  of  i  leaf  of  Festuca  rubra.    I  x30.— (Hackel.) : 

The  object  accomplished  by  the  closing  or  rolling  of  the  leaves 
is  to  cover  one  surface  and  assist  in  preventing  excessive  evapora- 
aatioii  in  dry  weather. 

The  bulliform  cells  in  their  size,  number,  .and  arrangement 
may  be  used  for  critical  specific  characters. 

Sedges,  Cyperacce,  often  have  one  band  of  very  large  bulliform 
cells'  in  the  median  line,  and  uniformly  on  the  iipper  side. 

These  modes  of  arrangement  of  the  bulliform  cells  is  especially 
important  in  a  physiological  point  of  view,  as  they  produce  vari- 
ous motions  of  the  leaves. 

Fiforo-vasciilar  Bundles. — In  all  grasses  the  structure  of 
these  is  much  the  same.  There  are  two,  rarely  four,  large  pit- 
ted vessels,  placed  side  by  side  near  the  middle  of  a  bundle,  at 
equal  distances  from  the  lower  epidermis.  The  reader  will  here 
find  it  profitable  to  consult  figure  5  for  tracing  out  details. 

Between  these  is  a  group  of  small  reticulated  cells,  as  many  as 
fifty  in  Festuca  arundinacea,  or  only  two  or  three  in  Panicum 
Crus-galli  (barn  yard  grass)  and  Leersiaoryzoides  (rice  cut-grass). 
Above  this  group,  towards  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  and  in  a 
median  line  of  the  bundle  is  one  or  more  annular  or  spiral  ves- 
sels, situated  near  an  air  cavity,  made  by  a  breaking  away  of  the 
cells. 

On  the  opposite  side,  always  on  a  median  line,  is  a  group  of 
latticed  cells  or  soft  bast. 

Surrounding  all  of  the  above  is  the  bundle  sheath  formed  of 
long,  thick  walled  cells ;  and  about  the  whole  bundle  is  the  thin- 
walled  parenchyma  of  the  fundamental  tissue. 

The  bundles  are  not  all  developed  to  the  same  extent.     The 


26  HYPODERMAL  FIBROUS  TISSUE. 

primaries  are  the  most  complete  and  have  all  the  elements  ;  the 
secondaries  have  no  annular  vessels  in  the  lacuna,  and  have  the 
other  elements«iuch  less  pronounced  ;  the  tertiaries  lack  the  lat- 
eral vessels,  and  are  reduced  to  a  slender  cord  of  small  dotted 
vessels  and  latticed  cells,  or  only  the  latticed  cells. 

Not  unfrequently  there  are  very  small  transverse  bundles  run- 
ning obliquely  from  one  bundle  to  another.  To  see  them  entire, 
a  longitudinal  section  must  be  made  parallel  to  the  epidermis. 

Hypodermal  Fibrous  Tissue.  —  Usually  this  tissue  is  found 
in  isolated  groups  just  beneath  the  epidermis,  and  consists  of 
very  long,thick-walled  cells,  with  overlapping,  tapering  extremi- 
ties. There  are  no  intercellular  spaces.  Sometimes  these  fibers 
are  found  at  the  margins  of  the  leaf  only  ;  often  opposite  the 
fibro-vascular  bundles  and  in  contact  with  them  on  the  lower 
side,  but  separated  from  them  on  the  upper  side  by  parenchyma. 

They  protect  and  strengthen  the  blade.  In  some  cases  they 
come  together  and  make  a  continuous  band  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  leaf,  but  never  on  the  upper  side. 

In  each  triangular  portion  of  a  leaf  of  Deschampsia  ccespitosa 
we  find  three  fibre-vascular  bundles,  a  large  median  one,  and  two 
small  lateral  bundles.  Below  each  is  a  group  of  hypodermal 

fibers. 

*. 

In  Stipa  tenacissima  there  are  five  fibro- 

vascular  bundles  in  one  nerve. 

As  examples  of  hypodermal  fibers,  we 

v-wnaOTEBwssBm^       have  : 

*  1°.   A  mere  trace  in  the  median  line  of 

FIG.  41.—  A  transverse   sec-  -,  •,    , 

tion  of  about  one-seventh  of  a  the  blade  ; 
blade  of  a  leaf  of  Deschampsia, 

2°'    A     r°U      at    the  keel    °f    th 


x  and  one  at  each  margin; 

50.—  (Sudworth.) 

3°.   Groups,  as  in  the  latter  case,  with  others  in  certain  places 
on  the  lower  side,  or  with  a  continuous  layer  on  the  lower  side  ; 


HYPODERMAL  FIBROUS  TISSUE. 


4°.   Groups  above  and  below  the  primary  bundles  only; 

5°.   Groups  above  and  below  each  bundle,  but  not  continuous; 

6°.   Groups  above  and  below  each  bundle,  and  contiguous; 

7°.  Groups  covering  the  mesophyll,  except  some  cells  bearing 
chlorophyll  on  the  sides  of  the  nerves. 

The  first  three  of  the  above  are  conduplicate  in  vernation,  and 
the  fourth  includes  all  of  the  species  of  Andropogon  and  Panicum, 
except  P.  plicatum.  So  far  as  the  development  of  hypodermal 
fibers  are  concerned,  Chamagrostis  minima  and  Stipa  tenacissima 
are  extremes.  The  former  is  illustrated  by  figure  18,  and  figure 
14  will  answer  as  a  substitute  for  the  latter. 

In  aquatic  and  in  annual  grasses  these  fibers  are  feebly  developed, 
while  those  grown  in  extreme  dry,  hot  countries  are  remarkable 
for  the  development  of  this  tissue.  Upland  grasses  grown  in  the 
shade,  with  an  ample  supply  of 
moisture,  have  their  woody  fibers 
feebly  developed. 

When  this  tissue  is  well  developed  it 
helps  prevent  the  free  evaporation  of 
moisture.  The  closing  of  the  stomata  S 

.,  .  veloped  hypodermal  tissue.    1x50. 

also  helps  to  retain  the  moisture.          —  (Duvai-Jouve.) 


FIG.  43.— Section  of  a 
blade  of  a  leaf  of  Ftstuca 
ovina  var,  Icevis,  with  a 
group  of  hypodermal 
fibers  below  the  mid-vein, 
and  one  at  eaeh  margin  of 
the  leaf.  1  x  30.— (Hackel.) 


FIG.  44.— Section  of  the 
blade  of  Festuca  mrina, 
with  hypodermal  fibers 
extending  over  the  lower 
side.  1x30.— (Hackel.) 


FIG.  45.— Section  of  a  leaf 
of  Festuca  ovina  var.  du~ 
riuscula  hard  fescue), 
with  hypodermal  fibers 
extending  over  the  lower 
side.  1x30.— (Hackel.) 


In  the  last  three  the  bulliform  cells  are  wanting  or  only  feebly 
developed,  and  the  blades  remain  closed  or  nearly  closed  even  when 
mature. 


28 


PARENCHYMA. 


Parenchyma  of  the  Leaf.  —  This  is  a  name  applied  to  all 

the  rest  of  the  leaf  -blade  after  taking  out  the  epidermis,  the  fibro- 
vascular  bundles,  and  the  hypodermal  fibers.  It  presents  three 
forms,  which  are  quite  distinct: 

a.  Cells  containing  chlorophyll  and  found  in  the  leaves  of  all 
grasses  without  exception. 

J.  Cells  without  color  inside,   found   in  certain  species  only. 

c.  The  star  shaped  and  branching  cells  found  in  the  air  canals 
of  species  (Fig.  10.)  more  or  less  aquatic. 

The  chlorophyll-bearing  parenchyma  is  of  two  sorts  : 

a.  Where  the  grains  are  rather  large  and  compact. 

J.  Where  some  of  the  chlorophyll  is  in  the  form  of  grains,  and 
some  of  it  is  diffused  more  or  less  like  jelly. 

Where  a  part  of  the  chlorophyll  is  more  or  less  diffused,  the 
rest  is  in  cells  which  form  concentric  cylinders,  or  the  cylinders 
may  be  open  in  one  or  two  places. 


FIG.  46.— Section  of  a  blade  o    Bnuteloua  Harvardii,  showing  some  rlosed  and  some 
open  cylinders  of  cells  containing  grains  of  chlorophyll.— (Sud worth.) 


Fro.  47.— Section  of  part  of  a  blade  of  Spartina  stricta  var.,  showing  large  cells  of 
parenchyma  destitute  of  chlorophyll;  these  are  situated  above  the  flbro- vascular 
bundles,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  lobes  which  extend  upward.  1  x  34.-<Sudworth.) 


THE  TORTION  OF  LEAVES. 


The  cells  of  parenchyma, 
which  contain  chlorophyll, 
reach  their  maximum  in  species 
which  grow  in  cool,  shady 

places. 

FIG.  48.—  Cross-section  of  a  blade  of  Spar- 
Una  juncea,  in  which  the  upper  surface  is 
deeply  furrowed.  1  x  34.-(Sudworth.) 

The  Tortion  of  Leaves.  — 

The  leaves  of  most  flowering 
plants  quite  uniformly  turn 
the  upper  surface  to  the  light 
and  keep  the  lower  surface 
in  the  shade.  This  rule  does 
not  hold  good  with  the 
grasses  nor  with  quite  a  num- 
ber of  others,  such  as  Typlia 
(cat-tail  flag)  and  Gladiolus 
among  endogens  ;  and  some 

species    Of    Liatris    (blazing 

Oj.__\  i        J.T  blade  of  S'partina  juncea,  showing  above  the  mid- 

star),      and      Others      among  rib,  a  remarkable  enlargement,  which  is  occu- 
pied by  large  cells  of  parenchyma,  destitute  of 
CXOgens.  chlorophyll.    IxlOO.—  (Sudworth.) 

In  half  or  more  of  the  grasses  examined,  the  whole  or  a  major- 
ity of  the  leaves,  by  a  twist  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  blade, 
turn  "wrong  side  up,"  and  expose  the  "lower  side  "  to  the  sun- 
light. In  most  other  cases,  we  have  seen  that  during  the  warmest 
and  dryest  weather,  when  the  sun's  rays  are  the  most  trying  to 
the  life  of  the  plant,  the  leaves  shut  up  or  roll  up,  leaving  the 
under  surface  alone  exposed.  Whether  right  side  up  or  wrong 
side  up,  the  surface  most  exposed  generally  possesses  the  firmer 
epidermis. 

Young  leaves  of  Phleum  pratense  (Timothy),  several  species  of 
Bromus  (chess),  Triticum  (wheat),  and  Agropyrum  (quack  grass) 
tSecale  cereale  (rye),  and  others,  twist  once  or  more  with  the  sun, 
or  in  the  direction  which  they  would  twist  were  the  sun  the 
cause  of  tortion. 


.  49.-Cro88-secn  of  the  central  part  of  a 


30  CHARACTERS  IN  THE  LEAF. 

Young  leaves  of  Arena  sativa  (oats)  and  Setaria  glauca  (pig- 
eon grass)  quite  uniformly  twist  against  the  sun,  while  those  of 
Poa  pratensis  (June  grass)  and  Panicum  capillare  seem 
indifferent  as  to  the  direction  in  which  they  twist.  The 
sun  does  not  seem  to  dictate  the  direction  of  the  twisting. 

The  leaves  of  grasses  generally  twist  best  and  with  greatest 
uniformity  when  young,  even  though  they  are  much  shaded  from 
the  rays  of  the  sun. 

Many  leaves  twist  most  towards  the  apex,  while  others  twist 
most,  or  entirely,  at  or  near  the  base  of  the  blade. 

The  margins  of  many  leaves  grow  a  little  longer  than  the  cen- 
tral portion,  and  if  the  mid-rib  is  not  very  prominent,  this  will 
produce  tortion  of  the  blade.  In  cases  of  Indian  corn,  the  mar- 
gins of  the  older  leaves  are  often  longer  than  the  mid-rib,  but 
there  is  no  tortion.  The  margins  are  undulating.  With  a  light 
mid-rib  and  stouter  margins,  the  leaves  of  this  plant  would  show 
tortion.  Probably  one  reason  why  most  of  the  tortion  is  towards 
the  apex  of  many  leaves  is  because  the  mid-rib  is  not  very  strong 
at  that  part  of  the  leaf. 

When  young  and  quite  erect,  the  lower  side  of  many  leaves 
seems  to  grow  a  trifle  faster  than  the  upper  side,  and  this  per- 
haps tips  the  leaf  over  "bottom  side"  up. 

Duval-Jouve  believes  that  tortion  of  the  blades  of  grasses 
depends  on  the  distribution  of  the  fibrous  tissue.  In  dry 
weather  this  tissue  contracts  least,  so  the  blade  twists. 

In  some  the  air  canals,  lacuncB,  let  in  dry  air,  which  contracts 
the  delicate  cells  of  parenchyma.  The  writer  has  not  yet  been 
able  to  find  the  reason  for  a  uniformity  in  the  direction  for  the 
tortion  of  the  leaves  of  any  species  of  grass. 

Generic  and  Specific  Characters  in  the  Leaf. — Eduardo 
Hackel,  in  his  Monographia  Festucarum  Europc&arum,  says: 
"The  histological  characters  of  the  leaf-blade  unquestionably 
include  those  most  important  for  the  discrimination  of  the 


CHARACTERS  IN  THE  LEAF.  31 

forms  of  Festuca,  but  the  degree  of  con- 
stancy or  value  of  each  character  must  first 
be  determined." 

By  experimenting  he  claims  to  have  found 
a  solid  foundation  for  the  estimation  of  these 
characters. 

He  finds  the  mesophyll  and  fibre-vascular 
bundles  quite  uniform  with  all  sorts  of  treat- 
ment of  the  plants,  but  the  epidermis  offers 
remarkable  differences,  especially  that  on  the 
lower  side  of  the  leaf.  This  difference  is  ap- 
parent in  the  thickness  of  the  outer  walls,  the 
size  of  the  cavities,  and  the  existence  or  ab- 
sence of  projections  on  the  partition  walls. 
The  dry,  cultivated  plants  had  their  epider- 
mis strongly  thickened  toward  the  outside, 
the  cavities  diminished,  and  over  the  partition 
wall  had  developed  cuticular  projections. 
The  moist  cultivated  plants  produced  slightly 
thickened  epidermis  cells,  broad  cavities,  and 
no  trace  of  cuticular  projections. 

The  sclerenchyma  or  bast,  or  hypodermal 
fibers,  varies  much  with  different  soils  and 
amount  of  moisture.  Species  of  moist,  shady 
habitats,  show  in  their  leaves  a  clear  prepon- 
derance of  the  assimilating  over  the  mechani- 
cal system. 

In  very  many  respects,  it  will  be  seen,  that 
a  critical  study  and  close  comparison  of  the 

leaves  of  grasses  will  reveal  a  wonderful  vari- 

,,     .  ,   .,      ,         FiG.  50.—  Young  blade 

ety   m   their    structure    and    cannot    fail    to  of    Trtticum    vulgar  e 

(wheat)  twisting  with  the 


excite  the  admiration  of   every  student.     In 

certain  portions  of  the  preceding  account  of  the  leaf,  the  writer 

has  followed  Duval-Jouve. 


32  POA  PRATENSIS,   L.    (JUNE  GRASS.) 


THE  BRACTS  AND  FLOWERS.  .    33 

The  Bracts  and  Flowers.— The  grasses  form  a  natural 
order  which  is  one  of  the  easiest  to  learn  to  recognize,  but  for 
this  very  reason  it  is  generally  difficult  to  distinguish  the  several 
species. 

The  best  characters  for  describing  grasses  are  found  in  connec- 
tion with  the  bracts,  flowers  and  the  ripened  ovary. 

A  great  diversity  of  views  have  been  entertained  by  leading 
botanists  in  relation  to  the  morphology  of  the  flower  and  the 
names  to  be  given  to  each  part. 

According  to  our  best  modern  authorities,  including  Bentham, 
Hooker,  Gray,  Sachs,  Munro,  and  Doll,  the  three  outer  scales  con- 
stitute no  part  of  the  flower,  but  answer  to  bracts. 

Morphology  of  the  Bracts  and  Flowers. — The  following  is 
a  full  abstract  of  an  able  essay  on  this  subject,  by  the  late  Geo. 
Bentham,  and  is  taken  from  the  Transactions  of  the  Linnean 
Society : 

The  terminology  adopted  by  botanists  has  been  very  unsettled 
and  repeatedly  modified.  The  absence  of  all  homology  be- 
tween the  so-called  sepals  in  grasses  and  those  of  perfect 
flowers  has  been  repeatedly  demonstrated.  Some  years  ago,  when 
preparing  my  Handbook  of  the  British  Flora,  I  purposed  following 
Kunth,  but  I  was  soon  brought  to  a  standstill  by  the  anomaly  of 
the  spikelet  of  Milium,  being  described  as  having  two  flowers 

Fig.  51.— A  plant  of  Poa  pratensis,  L.  (June  grass).  At  1,  a  small  plant,  with 
roots,  root-stocks,  leaves,  culm  and  flowers ;  e,  part  of  a  sheath  of  a  leaf  with  a  white 
ligule,  above  which  is  part  of  a  blade ;  a,  tpikelet,  closed,  containing  four  florets  ;  ft, 
spikelet  spread  open,  containing  five  florets,  as  seen  when  in  flower :  the  lower  scales 
as  seen  in  a  and  b,  are  the  empty  glumes,  c,  a  floret,  with,  floral  glume  at  the  right. 
palen  at  the  left,  including  three  stamens ;  /,  cross-section  of  the  floral  glume  which 
is  5-ribbed,  and  keeled ;  d,  a  pistil  with  the  ovary  below  bearing  two  short  styles,  each 
terminated  by  a  feathery  stigma;  at  the  base  on  each  side  is  a  lodicule.— (Scnbner.) 

According  fco  Robert  Brown,  the  two  lower  scales  of  a  and  ft  are  the  glumce,  and  con- 
stitute an  involucre.  They  are  the  empty  glumes  or  basal  glumes  of  many  authors; 
palece  of  Dumortier ;  teamen  of  Palisot  de  Beauvois.  According  to  Robert  Brown 
and  Jussieu,  the  two  scales  at  c,  are  the  paleoz,  and  represent  the  sepals ;  glu'inettce  of 
Dumortier;  straaulaot  Palisot  de  Beauvois;  periantJiium  of  authors.  According  to 
R.  Brown  and  Jussieu,  the  right  hand  scale  in  c  is  the  loiver  or  miter  palea,  glumen 
fertile  of  Germain  de  St.  Pierre;  flowering  glume  of  Bentham,  Hooker,  Doll. 

According  to  R.  Brown  and  Jussieu,  the  blunt  scale  at  the  left  in  c  is  the  Interior 
palea ,  poleola  interior  of  Damortier ;  zpathetta  of  D811.  According  to  R.  Brown  and 
Kunth,  the  small  scales  at  d  are  the  squamulce :  lodieules  of  Bentham  and  others ; 
nectaria  of  Scheber ;  glumellce  of  some  authors.  By  many,  these  scales  were  thought 
to  represent  petals. 


84  THE  BRACTS  AND  FLOWERS. 

and  one  glume,  when  I  could  not  expect  any  of  my  readers  to 
see  more  than  one  flower  with  three  glumes. 

After  carefully  examining  a  great  variety  of  genera,  and  com- 
paring them  with  the  nearest  allied  orders,  it  appeared  to  me 
that  no  distinct  and  universally  applicable  definition  of  the  term 
glume  could  be  given  unless  it  were  applied,  as  in  Cyperaceae,  to 
the  whole  of  the  primary  scales  attached  to  the  main  axis  of  the 
spikelet.  After  printing,  I  ascertained  that  similar  views  had 
been  independently  propounded  by  Hugo,  Mohl,  Doll  and  others 
in  Germany,  and  by  Germain  de  St.  Pierre,  in  France. 

In  several  of  our  large  genera  of  grasses,  the  only  difference 
between  the  one  or  two  outer  empty  glumes  and  the  flowering 
ones  is  that  they  are  rather  smaller  or  rather  larger,  and  there  is 
often  more  difference  between  the  first  and  second  empty  glumes 
than  between  the  upper  empty  glume  and  the  first  flowering  one. 
In  couch  grass  the  empty  and  flowering  glumes  are  precisely 
similar,  very  gradually  diminishing  in  size  from  the  outer  empty 
to  the  uppermost  flowering  glume.  An  empty  glume  in  one 
spikelet  may  correspond  to  a  flowering  one  in  another  spikelet  of 
the  same  plant.  In  rye-grass  the  spikelets  are  alternately  placed 
in  one  plane,  right  and  left,  the  single  empty  glume  of  each 
spikelet  being  the  lowest  and  outer  one,  whilst  the  second  glume 
next  the  axis  of  inflorescence,  is  the  lowest  flowering  one.  In  the 
uppermost  spikelet  there  are  two  empty  glumes,  aiid  this  is  not 
owing  to  the  development  of  an  additional  outer  glume,  for  the 
lower  of  the  two  empty  ones  is  on  the  side  it  ought  to  be  in  the 
regular  alternation  with  the  lower  spikelets ,  but  the  second 
glume,  which  in  the  lower  spikelets  encloses  a  flower,  13  in  this 
subterminal  one  empty.  So  in  several  Paniceae,  the  second  or 
third  glume,  according  to  the  genus  or  species,  has  been  observed 
sometimes,  to  enclose  a  rudimentary  or  male,  or  even  a  perfect 
flower,  and  at  other  times  to  be  quite  empty,  without  any  change 
in  its  appearance. 


THE  BRACTS  AND  FLOWERS.  35 

/  In  Panicum,  according  to  the  Kunthean  terminology,  the  first 
minute  scale  is  a  glume,  the  second,  many  times  larger,  is  also  a 
glume,  the  third,  often  precisely  similar  to  the  second,  is  not  a 
glume,  but  a  flower,  and  the  fourth,  whether  similar  or  more  or 
less  dissimilar,  is  a  part  of  a  flower.  In  some  gramineae  there 
are  additional  empty  glumes,  usually  small  and  often  different 
in  form,  either  immediately  below  the  flowering  ones,  as  in 
Anthoxanthum  and  Phalaris,  or  at  the  end  of  the  spikelet,  as  in 
Melica.  These  have  no  pretensions  to  be  flowers  at  all.  In 
some  genera,  as  in  Unipla,  from  three  to  six  of  the  lower 
glumes  are  empty,  and  precisely  similar  to  each  other,  and  yet 
we  are  only  allowed  to  call  the  two  lowest  ones  glumes,  the  others 
are  termed  flowers.  We  are  not  even  allowed  to  define  glumes 
as  the  two  lowest  scales  of  the  spikelet;  for  that  of  Leersia, 
which  has  two  glumes,  one  empty,  the  other  flowering,  is 
described  as  having  no  glumes  but  two  flowers.  In  Kyllinga  and 
Courtoisia,  in  Cypercaeae,  where  the  fruit  is  similarly  enclosed 
in  two  glumes,  they  are  correctly  described  as  such,  one  empty, 
the  other  a  flowering  one. 

The  so-called  upper  palea  is  neither  homologous  nor  similar  to 
the  so-called  lower  palea  or  flowering  glume.  It  is  inserted  on 
the  axis  of  the  flower,  and  not  on  that  of  the  spikelet,  as  may  be 
seen  in  cultivated  wheat.  It  is  differently  shaped,  and  having 
instead  of  one  central  rib  or  keel  two  prominent  nerves,  it  is 
generally  supposed  to  be  a  double  organ  composed  of  the  union 
of  two  scales.  These  two  scales  are  probably  the  homologues  of 
the  two  bracteoles  of  Hypolytrum  and  Platylepis.  It  is  con- 
venient to  designate  them  by  a  special  name,  for  which  the  gener- 
ally received  term  palea  is  not  inappropriate,  and  commits  one  to 
no  special  theory  in  regard  to  it.  It  appears  to  me  that  flowering 
glume  and  palea  is  not  more  cumbrous  than  the  deceptive  one 
lower  palea  and  upper  palea. 

The  two  or   rarely   three  small   scales   above   the  palea  and 


36  THE  BRACTS  AND  FLOWERS. 

alternating  with  the  stamens  in  most  grasses,  have  been  sup- 
posed to  represent  a  reduced  perianth;  but  their  homology  is  not 
satisfactorily  demonstrated. 

To  sum  up,  therefore,  the  spikelets  of  Graminece  may  be 
described  as  composed  of  a  series  of  alternate  glumes,  distichously 
imbricated  along  the  axis.  To  be  really  useful,  descriptions 
should  be  clear  and  intelligible,  and  enable  the  reader  to  identify 
the  plant.  He  should  describe  only  what  he  actually  sees,  not 
what.it  may  be  theoretically  imagined  he  ought  to  see. 

The  empty  glumes  are  often  more  or  less  boat-shaped,  and 
with  the  one  to  many  flowers  which  they  include,  constitute  a 
spikelet,  spicula  or  locusta.  One  or  both  empty  glumes  may  be 
absent  in  certain  cases.  The  spikelets  are  arranged  in  panicles, 
racemes,  spikes  or  heads. 

The  floral  glume  usually  resembles  the  two  empty  glumes  in 
having  a  midrib  with  an  equal  number  of  ribs  on  each  side, 
while  the  palea  often  has  two  ribs,  with  a  thin  membrane  between 
which  is  often  notched  at  the  apex. 

It  is  of  much  importance  in  describing  grasses  to  observe  the 
relative  lengths,  sizes,  shape,  number  of  ribs,  the  nature  of  the 
awn,  and  the  texture  of  the  glumes  and  palea. 

The  midrib  of  one  or  more  glumes  often  extends  upwards 
from  the  apex  into  an  awn,  and  in  case  of  the  floral  glume, 
the  awn  sometimes  starts  from  a  notch  at  the  top ;  sometimes 
from  the  back  below  the  apex,  and  is  then  said  to  be  dorsal. 

The  lower  part  of  the  awn  is  often  twisted  when  dry,  but 
straightens  when  moist.  If  the  lower  part  twists,  the  upper 
part  inclines  at  an  angle. 

The  glumes  and  the  palea  probably  represent  the  sheaths  of 
leaves,  and  where  an  awn  exists  it  sometimes  represents  the  blade 
of  a  leaf.  This  is  quite  well  shown  in  proliferous  flowers  of 
grasses,  as  seen  in  Figure  52,  a  proliferous  floral  glume  of  Phleum 
pratense  (Timothy). 


FERTILIZATION   OF  THE   FLOWERS. 


37 


We  say  flowers  are  proliferous  when  either 
the  glumes,  palea,  stamens  or  ovary,  or  all  of 
these  develop  into  small  leaves  in  place  of 
flowers.  This  is  not  uncommon  in  Indian 
corn  and  Juncus.  The  bulblets  of  onions  or 
" onion  sets"  are  familiar  examples. 

In  this  connection  a  reference  to  figure  53 
will  show  several  forms  of  ovaries  and  styles, 
'and  impress  the  reader  with  the  importance  fl(Jjg-  fi 
of    examining    these    minute    and    delicate 

the  sheath  and  a  portion 

organs  for  generic  and  specific  characters.       ae?eafe8iiilhstithe  biade 

e    arg 


Fig.  53.— 7,  Pistil  of  Mttxrrn  minima;  2,  Pistil  of  Arrhenatherum  avenaceum;  3,  Pistil 
of  Olyceria  aquatica ;  4,  Pistil  of  Melica  umflma;  6,  Pistil  of  Bromus  mottis;  8, 
Pistil  of  Alopecurus  pratensis,  meadow  fox  tail :  7,  Pistil  of  Rwrdus  stricta.  All 
magnified.— (From  Affrostographia,  synopttca  by  Kunth). 

Fertilization  of  the  Flowers. — When  the  flowers  arrive  at 
a  certain  stage  of  growth,  the  stigmas  are  ready  to  receive  the 
pollen,  which  sends  a  miniature  thread  down  the  style  to  the 
ovule.  The  pollen  of  grasses  is  in  the  form  of  round,  smooth 
cells,  and  escapes  readily.  The  flowers  of  grasses,  except  where 


38  FERTILIZATION   OF  THE   FLOWERS. 

close  fertilized,  are  usually  anemophilous,  fertilized  by  the  aid  of 
the  wind.  In  a  few  cases,  insects  visit  the  flowers  quite  regularly 
for  pollen,  and  most  likely  render  aid  in  the  fertilization.  The 
writer  has  several  times  seen  large  numbers  of  honey  bees,  early 
in  the  day,  gathering  the  pollen  of  Festuca  arundinacea. 

Buchloe  (buffalo  grass)  is  an  example  of  those  which  are 
dioecious,  and  of  course  the  flowers  are  all  cross-fertilized. 
Indian  corn,  Zizania  (wild  rice)  and  Tripsacum  (gama-grass)  are 
monoecious  and  are  very  likely  to  be  crossed.  In  some  cases  of 
Indian  corn,  and  probably  it  is  so  with  some  other  species,  the 
flowers  are  protogynous,  i.  e.,  the  pistils  come  forth  a  day  or  more 
in  advance  of  the  anthers.  In  other  cases,  as  for  example,  sweet 
vernal  grass  and  meadow  fox  tail,  the  flowers  are  proterandrous, 
i.  e.,  the  anthers  mature  in  advance  of  the  pistils.  In  either  plan, 
cross  fertilization  is  secured. 

The  spikelets  of  ArrlienatJierum  avenaceum  (tall  oat-grass), 
and  others,  contain  a  staminate  or  sterile  flower  to  every  perfect 
one,  and  the  flowers  of  Hierochloa  lorealis  (vanilla  grass),  are 
two  of  them  staminate  to  one  that  is  perfect.  The  use  of 
these  staminate  flowers  can  only  be  for  crossing.  Some  culti- 
vated plants  of  A.  avenaceum  bear  only  staminate  flowers. 

In  many  cases  where  the  flowers  are  perfect,  the  stamens  shed 
their  pollen  before  the  stigmas  are  ready,  or  the  reverse  is  the 
case. 

In  some  instances  the  stamens  and  pistils  appear  to  mature  at 
the  same  time,  as  in  most,  if  not  all,  sorts  of  cultivated  wheat, 
barley,  oats  and  rye.  In  the  three  former,  the  glumes  and  palese 
usually  closely  cover  up  the  stigmas  till  they  are  fertilized  or 
covered  with  pollen.  The  glumes  of  rye  spread  so  that  cross- 
fertilization  may  take  place.  AmpMcarpum,  Oryza  clandestina, 
some  species  of  Hordeum  and  Cryptostachys,  and  most  likely 
others,  produce  fertile  flowers  below  ground,  and  are  called 
cleistogamic. 


FERTILIZATION  OF  THE  FLOWERS. 


There  appears  to  be  no  fixed  rule  with  regard  to  the  fertiliza- 
tion of  the  flowers  of  a  genus. 

There  are  instances  among  plants  in  which  the  flowers  of  the 
same  species  are  fertilized  in  a  different  manner  in  different 
seasons  and  in  different  countries,  and  certain  specimens  of  a 
species  are  fertilized  in  an  exceptional  manner  during  the  same 
season  or  in  the  same  neighborhood. 

As  a  rule,  a  certain  specified  flower  of  a  grass  remains  open 
only  for  a  very  short  time,  but  different  flowers  of  a  plant  may 
appear  at  successive  periods,  extending  over  eight  days,  more  or 
less,  in  Indian  corn ;  seven  days,  more  or  less,  in  Timothy,  several 
days  in  oats  and  wheat,  and  for  a  much  longer  period  in  branching 
grasses  like  Eragrostis  and  Muhlenbergia. 

As  an  example  of  the  fertilization  of  grasses,  we  find  the  fol- 
lowing, by  A.  S.  Wilson,  in  an  admirable,  illustrated  paper  on 
" Fertilization  of  Cereals,"  in  the  Gardeners'  Chronicle,  for 
March  1874,  and  February,  1875 : 

"From  the  time  at  which  the  ears,  or 
part  of  the  ears,  of  the  four  European 
cereals,  wheat,  rye,  barley  and  oats, 
appear  above  the  sheath,  till  the  time  of 
flowering,  the  styles  and  the  anthers 
remain  in  nearly  the  same  position. 
During  this  time  the  filaments  are  of 
such  length  as  to  place  the  lower  ends  of 
the  anthers  in  contact  with  the  upper 
part  of  the  ovary,  while  the  styles  lie 
embraced  by  the  anthers,  the  whole  being 
straight  and  running  in  the  same  direc- 
tion  as  the  axis  of  the  closed  pales.  If 
a  floret  of  two-rowed  barley  is  held  up  between  the  eye  and  the 
light  before  fertilization  has  taken  place,  the  anthers  will  be  seen 


40  FERTILIZATION  OF  THE  FLOWERS, 

through  the  pales  lying  in  their  original  position,  and  if  the 
flower  is  then  opened  and  inspected,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
anthers  are  still  unopened,  and  still  retain  their  bright  yellow 
color.  But  if,  on  looking  through  the  semi-transparent  pales, 
the  anthers  are  seen  in  the  upper  part  of  the  cup,  fertilization 
has  taken  place,  and  if  the  floret  is  opened  the  anthers  will  be 
found  open,  with  the  pollen  scattered  about  on  the  feathers  and 
inner  surfaces  of  the  pales,  and  the  bright  color  of  the  anthers 
passing  away.  The  inner  pale  in  this  form  of  barley  is  so  tightly 
embraced  by  the  overlapping  edges  of  the  outer  pale  as  prevents 
further  opening. 

The  different  varieties  of  wheat,  so  far  as  known  to  the  writer, 
observe  conditions  of  opening  the  flower  similar  to  those  of 
the  barleys.  Many  wheat  florets  never  open  so  far  as  to  give 
room  for  the  egress  of  the  anthers.  Some  open  so  far  as  to  allow 
one  or  more  anthers  to  get  half  out,  in  which  position  they  are 
caught  and  held  by  the  reclosing  of  the  pales.  In  many  the 
anthers  are  wholly  retained,  but  the  general  rule  is  for  the  floret 
to  open  so  far  as  to  throw  out  the  anthers. 

Opening  of  the  cereal  flowers  takes  place  at  all  hours  of  the 
day.  I  have  observed  that  it  also  takes  place  in  all  kinds  of 
weather,  wet  or  dry.  I  have  observed  that  spelt  flowers  open  in 
the  morning  before  the  sun  touched  them.  I  have  also  seen 
them  open  in  a  dead  calm  after  sunset;  many  of  them  had 
•opened  and  closed  jvithin  an  hour  previously.  I  have  likewise 
seen  wheat  and  spelt  flowers  open  during  heavy  rain,  and  in  dull, 
cloudy  weather.  Fertilization  seems  to  take  place  when  the 
flower  is  ripe,  independently  of  any  particular  state  of  the 
weather.  In  respect  of  all  florets  which  do  not  open  so  far  as  to 
eject  their  anthers,  the  falling  of  rain  or  the  blowing  of  the 
strongest  wind  is  perhaps  a  matter  of  indifference.  The  opening 
of  the  flowers  may  be  induced  by  handling  the  ear  in  a  gentle 
way  when  the  natural  time  of  flowering  has  nearly  arrived.  I 


THE   CARYOPSIS  OR  GRAIN.  41 

have  seen  eleven  rye  florets  throw  out  their  bright  yellow  anthers 
at  the  same  time  on  one  spike,  by  simply  drawing  them  through 
the  hand. 

Break  off  a  barley  floret  from  an  ear  which  is  just  coming  into 
blossom ;  open  the  pales  gently,  and  put  it  under  a  low  magni- 
fying power.  Presently  .  a  slight  tremor  takes  place.  The 
anthers  begin  to  move  upward.  The  filaments  are  visibly 
growing  before  the  eye  at  the  real  rate  of  six  miles  an  hour.  The 
anthers  get  more  and  more  distended.  They  are  now  half  way 
up  the  unpretending  green  chalice.  Observe  the  little  slit  com- 
mencing near  the  apex  of  the  most  advanced.  Out  darts  a  little 
spurt  of  tiny  bullets.  Presently  the  next  and  the  next  opens. 
Instantly  another  and  another  spurt  of  tiny  bullets  are  sent 
dancing  from  each  half -open  suture  over  the  enclosing  sides  of 
the  pales,  or  down  upon  the  spreading  feathers.  Now  and  then  a 
solitary  ball  bounds  out  of  the  opening  cavity  over  the  plain  in 
front  of  it.  In  various  wheats  and  spelts  the  points  of  the 
feathers  are  frequently  thrown  outside,  where  they  are  sometimes 
fixed  permanently  by  the  reclosing  of  the  valves.  But  the  rule 
in  wheat,  oats  and  barley  is,  not  to  expose  the  feathers.  These 
are  fertilized  before  the  anthers  are  visible  outside.  By  estimate, 
a  single  anther  of  rye  contains  20,000  cells  of  pollen,  and  an 
acre  of  rye  produces  200  Ibs.  of  pollen." 

The  Caryopsis  or  Grain,  as  will  be  seen,  is  the  ripened 
ovary  which  is  closely  filled  by  the  seed. 

Here,  also,  the  reader  should  consult  figures  55  and  56  to  notice 
the  structure  of  a  caryopsis  or  grain  and  its  germination. 

The  Seed  is  a  miniature  plant  in  its  simplest  form,  as  Prof. 
W.  W.  Tracy  says,  '<  packed  ready  for  transportation,"  and  sup- 
plied with  concentrated  food  destined  to  nourish  the  young 
plant  till  it  form  roots  and  leaves. 

As  the  young  chicks  feed  upon  the  yolk  of  the  egg,  so  the 
young  grass-plant  subsists  on  the  starch  stored  up  in  the 
6 


42  THE  SEED. 

endosperm.  The  starch  to  the  plant  takes  the  place  of  milk  to 
the  colt,  calf,  or  pig.  The  milk  is  secreted  by  the  mother 
animal ;  the  starch  was  formed  in  the  leaves  of  the  mother  plant 
and  deposited  in  the  seed  for  future  use  of  the  seedling. 

As  the  water  ram  needs  some  water  to  move  it,  to  enable  it  to 
send  some  of  the  water  higher,  so  the  young  grass-plant  throws 
away,  if  we  may  use  the  expression,  some  of  its  substance  to 
enable  it  to  organize  the  remainder  into  roots  and  terminal  bud. 
During  the  growth  of  seeds  and  bulbs  in  the  dark,  the  actual  dry 
weight  is  diminished,  although  the  size  may  increase. 


(WS 


Fig.  55.— Longitudinal  section  of  the 
grain  of  Indian  corn ;  c,  thin  wall  of  the 
ovary ;  n,  remains  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  style,  known  as  the  "  silk ;"  fs,  base 
of  the  grain;  eg,  ew,  endosperm,  which 
feeds  the  yonng  plant  as  it  germinates  ; 
sc,  88,  scutellum  or  cotytedon  of  embryo ; 
e,  its  epidermis ;  A,  plumule  or  terminal 
bud ;  IP,  (below),  the  main  or  primary 
root ;  ws,  the  root  sheath ;  w,  (above)  ad- 
ventitious or  secondary  roots  springing 
from  the  first  internode  of  the  stem ;  st, 
the  stem.  Enlarged  about  six  times. 
(Sachs). 


Fig.  56. — Germination  of  Indian  corn, 
a  and  b,  front  and  side  views  of  the 
embryo  removed  from  the  kernel ;  w,  the 
primary  root;  «w,  its  root  sheath. 
(Sachs). 


THE  SEED. 


43 


Fig.  57.-P,  The  plu- 
mule; I,  fragment  of 
wall  of  ovary ;  w,  root 
with  root-hairs  above 
and  naked  below. 
(Sachs). 


Fig.  59.— a,  The  caryopsis 
of  Sporobolus  cryptandrus 
within  the  glumes ;  b,  the 
empty  ovary  split  open; 
c,  the  seed  whioh  has 
escaped  from  the  ovary. 
(Sudworth). 


In  case  of  most  grasses,  the  caryopsis 
consists  of  the  seed  permanently  inclosed 
in  the  adherent  walls  of  the  ovary.  The 
seeds  of  Sporobolus,  when  mature,  freely 
escape  from  the  delicate  ovary  as  shown  in 
Fig.  59. 


Fig.  58.— Young  plant  with  remains  of 
the  kernel,  part  of  root  with  lateral 
roots  starting,  apex  of  main  root  re- 
moved.—(Sudworth). 


THE  POWER  OF  MOTION. 

CHAPTER  II. 
THE  POWER  OF  MOTION  IN  PLANTS. 

It  would  be  foreign  to  the  object  of  this  work  to  say  much  on 
this  interesting  subject.  Keference  has  previously  been  made  to 
the  motion  of  protoplasm  in  living  cells,  to  the  closing  and 
opening  of  the  leaves  when  dried  or  moistened,  and  the  growth  of 
nodes  on  the  lower  side  to  aid  in  straightening  up  a  culm  which 
has  fallen  down.  The  following  will  serve  to  illustrate  what  may 
not  be  new  to  all  of  the  readers  of  these  pages : 

A  thrifty  hop-vine  went  winding  up  nine  or  ten  feet  to  the  top 
of  a  stake,  and  then  four  feet  and  two  inches  above  any  support, 
when  it  tipped  over  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  wind.  It 
swung  slowly  around,  sometimes  making  a  revolution  in  from 
one  to  two  hours.  If  another  stick  be  within  reach  of  the 
revolving  top,  it  will  seize  the  support  and  go  on  climbing  as 
before. 

Every  one  knows  that  asparagus  or  celery,  placed  on  the  side, 
will  soon  show  the  tips  bending  upward,  and  that  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  a  geranium  set  in  the  window  will  soon  bend  towards 
the  light.  These  are  familiar,  and  on  that  account  may  not 
awaken  much  curiosity,  but  it  must  seem  wonderful  to  learn,  for 
the  first  time,  that  the  power  of  moving  in  circles  or  ellipses,  or 
zigzag  lines,  is  universal,  so  far  as  we  know,  to  all  young  growing 
stems  and  all  their  .branches.  The  same  is  true  of  the  young 
leaves  and  all  of  the  young  roots.  ' '  Every  growing  part  of 
every  plant  is  continually  circumnutating  or  bowing  around." 
(Darwin).  This  motion  is  produced  by  the  increased  turgescence 
of  the  cells,  together  with  the  extensibility  of  their  cell-walls  on 
the  convex  side. 

As  Darwin  says,  "  It  would  appear  as  if  the  changes  in  the 
cells  required  periods  of  rest.  A  young  root  may  be 


THE  MOTION  OF  PLANTS.  45 

compared  with  a  burrowing  animal,  such  .  as  a  mole, 
which  wishes  to  penetrate  perpendicularly  down  into  the 
ground.  By  continually  moving  from  side  to  side,  he  will 
find  the  easist  place  for  descending.  If  the  earth  is  damper  on 
one  than  on  the  other  side,  he  will  turn  thither  as  to  better 
hunting  ground.  The  root,  doubtless,  can  only  distinguish 
water  which  touches  it,  having  no  power  to  '  scent '  moisture 
in  the  distance.  It  hunts  like  a  blind  worm,  by  feeling,  rather 
than  as  a  hound  by  scent  or  vision.  The  tip  alone  of  the  root  is 
sensitive,  and  when  excited  causes  the  adjoining  parts  to  bend. 
It  acts  like  the  brain  of  one  of  the  lower  animals;  the  brain 
being  seated  within  the  anterior  end  of  the  body.  And  yet  the 
tip  of  the  root  of  Indian  corn,  unless  held  in  place,  has  not 
power  enough  to  penetrate  or  indent  the  thinnest  tinfoil.  It  does 
not  act  like  a  nail  when  hammered  into  a  board,  but  more  like  a 
wedge  of  wood,  which,  whilst  slowly  driven  into  a  crevice,  con- 
tinually expands  at  the  same  time  by  the  absorption  of  water." 

A  young  stem  of  corn,  the  plumule  of  the  seed,  bends  here 
and  there  in  every  direction,  finding  the  easiest  place  out  of  the 
soil,  and  after  reaching  the  surface  and  growing  several  inches 
above,  it  swings  about,  making  the  opening  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground  slightly  funnel-shaped.  Some  plants  are  sensitive  to 
jarring  or  friction.  Previous  mention  of  this  has  been  made  in 
the  chapter  on  leaves. 

Nature  not  only  sows  and  distributes  the  seeds  of  grasses,  but 
often  buries  them  in  the  soil.  Seeds  are  generally  produced  in 
profuse  abundance,  enough  for  perpetuating  the  species  and 
.enough  to  spare  for  the  food  of  small  animals,  and  enough  to 
provide  against  numerous  accidents  and  failures.  After  the 
seeds  are  scattered  they  are  often  shaded  by  other  plants  which 
aid  in  keeping  them  moist  till  they  germinate.  Freezing  and 
thawing,  rains  and  melting  snows  cover  a  portion  of  the  seeds ; 
the  wind  drifts  soil  or  leaves  or  other  small  particles  over  others. 


46 


HOW  SEEDS  BURY  THEMSELVES, 


In  countries  subject  to  drought,  where  the  soil  is  sandy  and 
light,  the  awns  of  Stipa,  Danthonia,  Avena,  Heteropogon,  Antlus- 
tiria,  Air  a,  and  some  others,  assist  the  seeds  in  thrusting  them- 
selves beneath  the  dry  surface  to  a  place  of  moisture,  where  they 
may  germinate.  Some  of  these  literally  bore  their  way  into  the 
soil. 

When  dry,  the  lower  part  of  the  awns  of  these  grasses  twists 
about,  the  upper  portion  bending  off  at  an  angle ;  when  wet,  the 
awn  untwists  and  finally  becomes  straight.  The  lower  part  of 
the  chaff  which  envelopes  some  grass  seeds  is  furnished  with 
sharp  or  oblique  beaks,  provided  with  stiff  hairs,  which  act  as 
beards.  By  dropping  such  seeds  on  the  surface,  and  alternately 
drying  and  wetting  them,  an  experimenter  will  find  that  they 
penetrate  the  sand,  even  in  some  instances  extending  down  six 
inches  below  the  surface.  It  seems  to  make  no  difference  whether 
the  grains  are  dropped  among  sticks  or  stubble,  or  on  smooth  sand, 
they  alike  penetrate  the  soil.  Even  in  clay  soil  the  seeds  work 
themselves  into  the  cracks  where  the  sun  has  dried  it ;  on  the  re- 
turn of  rains  the  cracks  close,  or  soil  covers  the  seeds. 

If  the  stubble,  straw  or  any  other  objects  prevent  the  awn 
from  turning  around,  the  seed  will  revolve  on  its  axis.  Besides, 
if  the  awn  is  wet  and  held  down  by  any  object,  as  it  tries  to 
straighten  itself  it  will  help  push  the  seed,  like  a  brad-awl,  into  the 
ground.  On  wetting  the  grain  and  awn  of  Stipa  pennata,  Fran- 
cis Darwin  (Transactions  of  the  Linnean  Society,  p.  149,  1876), 
found  that  the  rate  increases  up  to  the  fifth  revolution,  and  then 
diminished  quickly.  This  is  shown  in  the  table : 


Turn. 

Completed  in 

Turn. 

Completed  in 

No.  1 
No.  2 
No.  3 
No.  4 
No.  5 

M. 

2 

2 
1 
1 
1 

S. 
30 
00 
45 
35 
25 

No.     6 
No.    7 
No.    8 
No.    9 
No.  10- 

M. 

1 
1 
2 
3 

S. 
30 
45 
10 
20 

HOW  SEEDS  BURY  THEMSELVES. 


47 


^^*  In  three  wettings  and 
three  dryings,  a  little 
over  an  inch  was  buried 

in   dry  sand.     A    rise    of    temperature     affects    the 
awns  in  the  same  way  as  increased  moisture ;  a  fall 
of  temperature  acts  like  dryness.     Mr.  Darwin  found 
that  minute  strips  of  the  awn,  consisting  even  of  two 
long  cells,  twisted  just  as  well  as  the  entire  awn.     He 
thinks   the   tortion  is   produced   by  the  striation  or 
stratification  of   the  cell  walls.     These   are  series   of 
parallel  lines,  alternately  light  and  dark,    traversing 
the   surface   of   the   cell.      Very  frequently  the  two 
systems  wind  spirally  round  the  axis  in   opposite  di- 
rections.    When  the  tissue  expands  during  the  absorp- 
tion of  water,  it  is  due  mainly  to  the  swelling  of  the 
less  dense  striae.     This  is  thought  to  be  the 
cause  of  tortion  in  cotton  wool.     Soon  after 
being  buried,  where  the  soil  is  moist,  the  awn 
breaks  off  at  a  joint  from   the  apex   of    the 
grain.     The  seeds  of  some  of  these    species, 
such  as  those  of  Stipa  spartea,  are  very  annoy- 
ing to  sheep  and  other  animals,  such  as  are 
covered    with  thick    hair.     They    sometimes 
even  cause  death.     [Dr.  M.  Stalker  in   Am. 
Nat.,  p.  929,  1884].     Where  plenty,  they  pen- 
etrate clothing  about  the   ankles   of   people, 
and   produce    considerable     trouble.     Those, 
like   sweet   vernal,    which   are  provided  with 
feeble  awns,    work    their   way  under  leaves, 
sticks,  rubbish,  and  find  every  little  hole  and 
crack  in  the  dried  earth,  when  the  first  rain  covers  them  with  soil. 
The  fertile  flowers  of  Amphicarpum  are  not  those  on  top  of  the 
culms,  but  those  out  of  sight  and  among  the  roots  under  ground. 
Moles,  ants,  and  other  small  animals  move  earth  and  cover  seeds. 


Fig.  60.— O  vary 

and  awn  of  stitxt 
avenacea  1  x  l.-(Sud- 
worth). 


Fig.  61.— Two  long 
cells  of  an  awn  iso- 


lated  and  twisting 
ch 

rged 
Lin.  Soc). 


when    dry.      Muc 
enlar  g  e  d.— (Tr; 


48  THE  GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS. 

CHAPTER  III. 
PLANT  GROWTH. 

Germination  of  Seeds.— Figures  56,  57,  58,  on  a  former 
page,  illustrate  the  parts  of  a  kernel  of  corn  and  its  mode  of 
growth.  Tor  the  account  of  the  structure  of  the  seed  consult  a 
former  paragraph  on  this  subject.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  grain 
of  corn,  as  is  true  of  all  the  grasses,  remains  stationary  where 
planted,  at  the  base  of  the  ascending  axis. 

( '  For  germination  to  take  place,  moisture,  oxygen  and  a  suit- 
able temperature  are  necessary.  Under  these  conditions  the 
seed  swells,  oxygen  is  absorbed,  a  part  of  the  carbonaceous 
ingredients  is  oxidized,  heat  is  developed,  and  carbon  dioxide  is 
evolved.  During  these  changes  the  solid  ingredients  of  the  seed 
gradually  become  soluble ;  the  starch  and  fat  are  converted  into 
sugar;  the  albuminoids  are  converted  into  amides." —  (Waring- 
ton's  Chemistry  of  the  Farm.) 

In  the  Temperate  Zones,  the  seeds  of  grasses  germinate  quickly 
at  a  rather  low  temperature,  though  there  is  considerable  differ- 
ence in  this  particular.  Some  germinate  a  little  above  the 
freezing  point,  while  every  farmer  knows  that  Indian  corn,  sor- 
ghum and  millet  start  slowly,  unless  the  weather  be  quite  warm, 
and  that  the  seeds  will  decay  if  kept  wet  and  cold. 

Old  or  light  seeds  often  sprout  quickly,  but  produce  weak 
plants. 

Though  the  seeds  of  grasses  be  secured  when  quite  young,  in 
the  milk,  a  short  time  after  flowering,  when  the  endosperm  is 
very  small  and  the  seeds  shrivel  as  they  dry,  yet,  if  the  embryo 
be  formed  and  the  seed  well  cured  in  a  dry  place,  it  will  germi- 
nate. Dry  seeds  will  endure  much  cold ;  wet  or  green  seeds  will 
endure  but  little. 

Grass  seeds  may  be  covered  deeper  in  a  sandy  soil  than  in  clay, 
deeper  in  a  rather  dry  soil  than  in  a  wet  one. 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  GREEN  LEAVES.  49 

The  seeds  of  grasses  are  quite  small,  and  should  seldom  be 
covered  more  than  the  eighth  or  fourth  of  an  inch  deep.  The 
only  need  of  a  covering  is  to  keep  the  seeds  moist,  and  in  some 
cases  to  prevent  birds  or  other  small  animals  from  eating  them. 
If  planted  deep,  the  supply  of  oxygen  is  liable  to  be  insufficient, 
or  if  it  be  present,  the  seed  is  likely  to  become  exhausted  or 
much  weakened  in  thrusting  its  young  stem  and  leaves  to  the 
surface,  where  it  may  reach  the  light  and  begin  to  make  a  per- 
manent growth  of  green  leaves.  All  experiments  are  so  much 
modified  by  the  weather  and  condition  of  the  soil,  that  to  give 
definite  rules  is  difficult. 

The  Function  of  Green  Leaves. — Leaves  not  unfrequently 
absorb  water  in  a  liquid  state  as  well  as  in  the  form  of  vapor, 
yet  the  roots  absorb  most  of  the  water  for  plant  growth.  That 
leaves  sometimes  absorb  water  is  most  easily  tested  by  observing 
the  revival  of  cut  flowers  or  plants  when  placed  in  a  moist,  tin 
box. 

"The  paramount  function  of  the  leaf  is  the  absorption  and 
assimilation  of  carbon,  as  such  does  not  exist  in  the  atmosphere, 
unless,  indeed,  as  an  impurity  in  air  of  towns,  and  a  very  preju- 
dicial one  to  plants. "  (Masters).  The  carbon  of  plants  comes 
from  carbon  dioxide,  and  is  decomposed  through  the  agency  of 
chlorophyll  under  the  influence  of  light. 

Plants  can  endure  darkness  for  a  short  time,  but  if  long  con* 
tinned  the  chlorophyll  disappears  and  the  leaves  fade,  and 
finally  perish,  as  may  be  seen  in  warm  weather  where  a  board  is 
placed  on  the  grass  for  some  time. 

Unless  the  air  is  saturated  with  moisture,  which  is  not  com- 
monly the  ease  for  long  periods,  the  leaves  evaporate  large 
quantities  of  water.  The  surplus  passes  off,  leaving  the  con- 
densed assimilated  matter  for  building  up  the  plant.  In  a  grow- 
ing season,  while  everything  is  thrifty,  a  grass-plant  contains 
70  to  80  per  cent  or  more  of  water. 
7 


50  THE  PLANT  IS  A  FACTOEY. 

The  Plant  is  a  Factory.—"  All  the  labour  of  the  plant  by 
•which  out  of  air,  water,  and  a  pinch  of  divers  salts  scattered  in 
the  soil,  it  builds  up  leaf  and  stem  and  roots,  and  puts  together 
material  for  seed  or  bud  or  bulb,  is  wrought  and  wrought  only 
by  the  green  cells,  which  give  greenness  to  leaf  and  branch  or 
stem.  We  may  say  of  the  plant,  that  the  green  cells  of  the 
green  leaves  are  the  blood  thereof.  As  the  food  which  an  animal 
takes  remains  a  mere  burden  until  it  is  transmuted  into  blood,  so 
the  material  which  the  roots  bring  to  the  plant  is  mere  dead  food 
till  the  cunning  toil  of  a  chlorophyll-holding  cell  has  passed 
into  it  the  quickening  sunbeam.  Take  away  from  a  plant  even 
so  much  as  a  single  green  leaf,  and  you  rob  it  of  so  much  of  its 
very  life  blood. "  (Masters,  quoted  from  Gardener's  Chronicle). 

A  living  plant  is  a  machine  or  a  factory,  which,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  light  and  heat,  transforms  raw  materials  into  organic 
matter,  suitable  for  enlarging  the  plant  or  enabling  it  to  grow. 
In  nearly  all  cases,  some  portions  of  a  plant  are  dying  while 
others  are  growing,  and  to  some  extent,  one  part  is  independent 
of  other  portions.  This  enables  a  plant  to  change  its  place  of 
growth,  to  feed  on  its  own  stock  of  nourishment,  or  to  recuper- 
ate when  injured.  The  formation  and  enlargement  of  new  cells 
constitute  growth.  To  be  ready  for  absorption  by  plants,  matter 
must  be  in  a  liquid  or  gaseous  condition.  To  a  great  extent  a 
plant  takes  what  it  likes  best,  or  is  capable  of  controlling  the 
quantity  of  any  substance  absorbed. 

Of  the  materials  assimilated,  a  part  goes  at  once  to  form  cell 
walls,  cork,  mucilage,  etc.,  and  can  never  be  changed  by  the 
plant  into  matter  for  constructing  other  parts  of  the  rjlant,  while 
other  portions  of  assimilated  material  take  the  form  of  starch, 
oil,  inulin,  and  are  likely  to  be  again  changed  and  transferred 
once  or  more  times  to  other  portions  of  the  plant. 

Only  a  very  small  part  of  the  most  fertile  soil  is  in  condition 
to  be  used  for  plant  food.  Some  soils  may  contain  a  large 


COMPOSITION  OF  PLANTS.  51 

amount  of  materials  which  the  plants  cannot  take,  or  do  not 
need.  A  fertile  soil  is  capable  of  retaining  plant  food,  while 
sandy  soils,  owing  to  their  excellent  natural  drainage,  are  not 
fertile  unless  frequently  supplied  with  manure. 

Two  different  kinds  of  plants  growing  in  the  same  field  will 
usually  be  found  to  contain  certain  substances  in  different  pro- 
portion. Some  are  essential,  others  not ;  some  in  large  quantity, 
others  in  small  quantity,  yet,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  by  the 
chemical  composition  of  a  plant,  we  cannot  always  tell  what 
manures  will  benefit  it  most. 

Composition  of  Plants. — The  combustible  part  of  plants  is 
made  up  of  five  chemical  elements — carbon,  oxygen,- hydrogen, 
nitrogen  and  sulphur ;  without  these  no  plant  is  ever  produced. 
The  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen  form  the  cellulose,  lignose, 
pectin,  starch,  sugar,  fat  and  vegetable  acids.  The  same  elements 
united  with  nitrogen  form  the  amides  and  alkaloids ;  and  further 
united  with  sulphur  the  still  more  important  albuminoids. 

The  incombustible  ash  always  contains  five  elements — potas- 
sium, magnesium,  calcium,  iron  and  phosphorus,  besides  sulphur. 
Iron  is  present  in  only  very  small  quantity.  Besides  these,  an 
ash  will  generally  contain  sodium,  silicon  and  chlorine,  some- 
times manganese,  and  perhaps  minute  quantities  of  other  elements. 

The  earlier  chemists  spoke  of  the  combustible  portions  of 
plants  as  "organic,"  and  the  incombustible  portions  as  "inor- 
ganic." This  distinction  is  no  longer  considered  accurate. 

Excepting  oxygen,  these  elements  are  taken  from  compounds, 
such  as  water,  carbon  dioxide  and  the  substances  combined  as 
shown  in  the  following : 


Nitrates. 
Sulphates. 
Carbonates. 

OF  

'  Ammonia. 
Potash. 
Lime. 

Phosphates. 
Silicates. 
Chlorides. 

Iron. 
Soda. 
.  M  agnesia. 

82  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  GRASSES. 

COMPOSITION    OF   A   CROP   OF    MEADOW    GRASS. 

Water 8,378  Ibs. 

Carbon 1315"! 


49  }•  Combustible  matter 2,613  Ibs. 

Oxygen  and  Sulphur  1105  J 

Potash 56.3 

Soda 11.9 

Lime 28.1 

Magnesia 10.1 

Oxide  of  Iron  .9  Ugh 2Q9  ^ 

Phosphoric  Acid...  12.7 

Sulphuric  Acid .  10.8 

Chlorine 16.2 

Silica... 57.5 

Sand,  &c^ 4.5  j 


Total  crop 11,200  Ibs. 

From  the  soil  plants  obtain,  by  means  of  their  roots,  all  their 
ash  constituents,  all  their  sulphur,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  their 
nitrogen  and  water.  From  the  atmosphere  they  obtain,  through 
their  leaves,  the  whole,  or  nearly  the  whole,  of  their  carbon, 
with  probably  small  quantities  of  nitrogen  and  water.  The 
amount  and  composition  of  the  ash  of  succulent  plants,  as 
meadow  grass  and  clover,  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  character 
of  the  soil  and  the  manure  applied. 

For  most  of  the  above  paragraph  the  writer  is  indebted  to  the 
Chemistry  of  the  Farm,  by  R.  Warington. 

Meadow  hay  contains  a  much  larger  proportion  of  potash  and 
lime  than  is  found  in  the  ripened  grain  of  the  cereals. 

The  Chemical  Composition  of  American  Grasses.*— In 
submitting  grasses  to  chemical  analysis,  with  a  view  of  judging 
of  their  nutritive  value,  it  is  usual  to  determine  the  amount  pres- 
ent of  water,  ash,  fat  or  oil,  fiber  and  nitrogen.  From  the  latter 
the  amount  of  albuminoids  to  which  it  is  equivalent  is  readily 
calculated  by  multiplying  by  a  factor  which  represents  the  per 

*  Taken  by  permission  from  the  Agricultural  Grasses,  by  the  United  State  Depart- 
ment  of  Agriculture,  1884,  Clifford  Richardson,  Assistant  Chemist. 


THE  COMPOSITION  OF  GRASSES. 


cent  of  nitrogen  present  in  the  average  albuminoid,  and  by  sub- 
tracting the  sum  of  all  these  constituents  from  one  hundred,  the 
percentage  of  undetermined  matter  is  obtained,  and  as  it  of 
course  contains  no  nitrogen,  and  consists  of  the  extractive  prin- 
ciples of  the  plant,  it  is  described  as  'Nitrogen  free  extract.'  It 
includes  all  the  carbo-hydrates,  such  a  sugar,  starch,  and  gum, 
together  with  certain  other  allied  substances,  with  which  we  are 
less  intimately  acquainted,  but  which  have  a  certain  nutritive 
value. 

Although  it  has  been  customary  to  state  as  albuminoids  the 
equivalent  of  the  nitrogen  found,  this  is  rarely  entirely  correct, 
as  a  portion  is  generally  present  in  a  less  highly  elaborated  form 
of  a  smaller  nutritive  value.  This  portion  is  described  as  non- 
albuminoid  nitrogen,  and  in  analysis  of  the  present  day  the 
amount  is  always  given  as  an  additional  source  of  information, 
although  our  knowledge  of  its  exact  value  to  the  animal  is  rather 
uncertain. 

The  wide  variations  in  fiber  and  albuminoids  must  be  regarded 
as  being  entirely  due  to  physiological  causes,  which  are  difficult  to 
explain.  Digitaria  sanguinale,  for  instance,  which  in  one  speci- 
men contains  the  extreme  amount  of  albuminoids  and  a  small 
amount  of  fiber  has  in  another  only  half  as  much  albumen  and  one 
and  three-quarter  times  as  much  fiber.  We  learn  then,  that 
species  are  not  in  themselves  at  all  fixed  in  their  composition, 
there  being  as  large  variations  among  specimens  of  the  same  as 
between  specimens  of  different  species. 

Analysis  of  Phleum  pratense  (Timothy)  from  various  localities. 
FULL  BLOOM. 


H 

| 

11 

1 

u 

£ 

H 

1 

LOCALITY. 

1 

•3 

2 

id 

•  c  ° 

1 

I 

2  ** 

s 

1 

1 

Total  Nl 

1  Non-Alb 
Nitroge 

Per  Cen 
Nitroge 
Albuml 

Department  Garden,  1881  
Department  Garden,  1880  
Maryland 

7.16 
5.66 
4.93 

4.47 
3.58 
4.22 

50.03 
58.93 
52.83 

21:93 

30.43 

10.99 
9.90 
7.69 

1.75 
1.58 
1.23 

.51 
.38 
.15 

29.1 
24.0 
12.2 

New  Hampshire  

4.57 

4.20 

57.16 

28.28 

5.79 

.93 

.10 

10.8 

Indiana  

7.05 

2.18 

52.99 

32.26 

5.52 

.88 

.IK) 

.0 

ANALYSES  OF  GRASSES. 


Analyses  of  Dactylis  glomerate  (orchard  grass)  from  various  localities. 
FULL  BLOOM. 


LOCALITY. 

< 

^> 

£ 

& 

I 

^  "** 

1 

Albuminoids. 

Total  Nitrogen. 

Non-Albuminoids 
Nitrogen. 

Per  Cent,  of  Total 
Nitrogen  as  Non- 
Albuminoids. 

North  Carolina.... 
District  of  Columbia 

7.42 
807 

3.56 
324 

56.03 
5376 

23.08 
2540 

9.91 
953 

1.58 
153 

.30 
16 

19.0 

10  5 

Maine.  

8.02 

3.39 

54.80 

26.05 

8.74 

1.40 

.36 

257 

District  of  Columbia 

6.00 

362 

57.34 

24.42 

862 

138 

42 

304 

633 

266 

5499 

2751 

856 

137 

51 

37  2 

New  Hampshire  

8.44 

3.49 

54.75 

24.91 

8.41 

1.35 

.42 

309 

The  different  sections  furnish  very  different  qualities  of  grasses, 
and  for  the  reason  that  those  from  the  north  were  almost  entirely 
from  cultivated  soil,  while  those  from  the  other  sections  were 
many  or  most  of  them  wild  species  from  old  sod.  The  improve- 
ment brought  about  by  cultivation  is  marked,  and  the  difference 
between  a  ton  of  wild  western  and  eastern  cultivated  hay  is 
apparent. 

In  comparison  with  German  grasses  our  best  do  not  equal  in 
amount  of  albuminoids,  those  classed  by  Wolff  as  fair,  but  they 
are  far  superior  in  having  a  much  smaller  percentage  of  fiber, 
and  consequently  a  large  amount  of  digestible  carbohydrates.  In 
the  grasses  of  both  countries  the  fiber  increases  with  regularity 
as  the  nitrogenous  constituents  decrease,  and  of  the  latter  the 
non-albuminoid  portion  is  relatively  greatly  the  poorer  the 
quality  of  the  grass.  . 

Analyses  have  been  made  of  series  illustrating  the  changes  in 
composition  of  several  species  from  the  appearance  of  the  blade 
to  the  maturity  of  the  seed. 

With  a  few  exceptions  the  specimens  were  personally  collected 
in  the  grounds  of  the  Department.  They  all  grew  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1880  except  the  few  series  illustrative  of  the  first  year's 
growth  of  certain  species.  The  specimens  were  cut  close  to  the 
roots,  weighed  and  dried  rapidly  in  a  current  of  air  at  60°  C. 


ANALYSES  OF  GRASSES. 


55 


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ANALYSES  OF  GRASSES. 


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ANALYSES  OF  GRASSES. 

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ANALYSES  OF  GRASSES. 

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ANALYSES  OF  GRASSES.  59 

The  preceding  analyses  furnish  the  data  from  which  is  derived 
the  general  conclusion  that  as  a  grass  grows  older  its  content  of 
water  decreases,  ash  decreases,  fat  decreases,  albuminoids  decrease, 
carbo-hydrates  increase,  crude  fiber  increases,  non-albuminoids 
decrease  till  bloom  or  slightly  after,  when  it  is  at  its  lowest,  and 
then  increases  again  during  the  formation  of  the  seed. 

There  are  exceptions  to  these  rules,  but  for  the  large  majority 
of  species,  under  ordinary  conditions  of  environment  they  hold 
good. 

There  are  almost  no  exceptions  to  the  fact,  that  water  decreases 
in  the  maturer  specimens ;  that  is  to  say  the  plant  gradually  dries 
up  and  becomes  less  succulent.  The  ash  is  very  dependent  on 
locality  and  surroundings. 

The  albuminoids  decrease  in  amount  with  great  regularity,  the 
few  cases  where  an  increase  appears  being  owing  to  the  fact,  that 
the  specimens  were  probably  grown  under  varying  conditions. 

Although  largely  a  matter  of  opinion,  it  would  seem  from  the 
foregoing  results  that  the  time  of  bloom  or  very  little  later  is  the 
time  for  cutting  grasses  to  be  cured  as  hay.  The  amount  of 
water  has  diminished  relatively,  and  there  is  a  proportionately 
larger  amount  of  nutriment,  in  the  material  cut,  and  the  weight 
of  the  latter  will  be  at  its  highest  point,  economically  considered. 
Later  on,  the  amount  of  fiber  becomes  too  prominent,  the  stalk 
grows  hard,  arid,  and  indigestible,  and  the  albuminoids  decrease, 
while  the  dry  seeds  are  readily  detached  from  their  glumes  and 
lost  with  their  store  of  nitrogen. 

For  different  species,  however,  different  times  are  undoubtedly 
suitable,  and  experience  must  be  added  to  our  chemical  knowl- 
edge to  enable  a  rational  decision  to  be  arrived  at. 

This  work  was  inaugurated  by  Dr.  Peter  Collier,  as  chemist  to 
this  Department,  and  the  laboratory  work  for  the  first  year  was 
in  the  hands  of  Henry  B.  Parsons,  Mr.  Charles  Wellington,  and 
myself.  The  remainder  of  the  work  has  been  under  my  own 


60  PLANT  AFFINITY. 

supervision,  and  has  been  almost  entirely  carried  out  by  Mr. 
Miles  Fuller  and  myself." 

From  the  foregoing  statements,  we  conclude  that  grasses  of  the 
better  grazing  districts,  when  grown  in  a  dry  season,  make  the 
best  feed,  but  usually  less  in  quantity.  Grasses  grown  in  sunny 
weather  are  better  than  those  grown  in  cloudy  weather  or  in  the 
shade.  Woodland  pastures  are  proverbially  lacking  in  "  heart  " 
or  nourishment.  Grasses  grown  on  marshes  or  wet  land  are  not 
so  nutritious  as  those  grown  on  dry  land.  Grasses  grown  on  rich 
loam  or  clay,  in  fine  condition,  are  more  nutritious  than  those 
grown  on  poor,  thin  soil. 

Further  statements  in  regard  to  the  chemistry  of  plant  growth 
will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  red  clover. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
CLASSIFYING,  NAMING.  DESCRIBING,    COLLECTING,  STUDYING. 

Plant  Affinity. — In  the  plant  kingdom  there  are  certain 
genera  so  closely  related  to  each  other  that  the  botanist  calls 
them  families  or  natural  orders.  The  plants  of  a  family  resemble 
each  other  in  many  respects. 

' '  That  which  really  determines  affinity  is  correspondence  in 
structure.  It  may  be  said  that  those  plants  are  most  nearly 
related  which  correspond  in  the  greatest  number  of  points,  and 
those  the  most  distantly  in  which  we  find  the  fewest  points  of 
correspondence.  The  organs  of  vegetation  are  of  very  different 
degrees  of  value  in  determining  resemblance  of  structure.  All 
constant  characters  of  whatever  nature,  require  to  be  taken  into 
account  in  classifying  plants  according  to  their  natural  affinities. 
Whatever  points  of  structure  are  variable  in  the"  same  species,  or 
in  species  nearly  allied  to  each  other,  are  unessential  and  should 


FAMILIES  OF  GREATEST  WORTH.  61 

be  set  aside,  or  be  regarded  as  of  comparative  unimportance." 
(Lindley's  Vegetable  Kingdom.) 

Those  who  have  given  little  attention  to  the  subject  are  liable 
to  make  mistakes  in  judging  of  natural  affinity,  because  they 
draw  conclusions  from  unimportant  circumstances,  the  chief  of 
which  are  size,  form,  color,  and  minute  details. 

An  artificial  classification  is  founded  on  some  one  or  a  few  char- 
acters, disregarding  all  others.  For  example,  it  would  place  all 
trees  by  themselves  in  one  group,  all  shrubs  in  another;  all  those 
which  had  five  stamens  together,  in  distinction  from  those  which 
had  any  other  number  of  stamens,  while  a  natural  classification 
aims  to  consider  all  structural  features  while  young  as  well  as 
when  mature,  placing  plants  together  which  resemble  each  other 
in  numerous  particulars,  and  show  real  relationship. 

Families  of  Greatest  Worth. — All  the  flowering  plants  grow- 
ing in  the  United  States  are  included  in  about  one  hundred  and 
seventy  families.  In  this  portion  of  country,  most  of  the  plants 
which  are  cultivated  to  supply  man  and  his  domestic  animals 
with  food  are  included  within  sixteen  of  these  families. 

The  Cruciferce  (Mustard  Family),  includes  peppergrass,  water 
cress,  horse-radish,  mustard,  sea  kale,  turnip,  ruta-baga,  cabbage, 
kale,  broccoli,  brussels  spruts,  cauliflower,  coleworts,  kohlrabi. 

The  RutacecB  (Orangeworts),  includes  the  orange,  the  lime,  the 
lemon,  the  shaddock. 

The  VitacecB  (Grape  Family),  gives  one  species  of  grape  to 
Europe  and  eleven  to  North  America,  besides  the  beautiful  Vir- 
ginia creeper. 

The  Leguminosce  (Pulse  family),  is  second- in  size  to  the  Com- 
positcB  and  is  one  of  great  value.  It  includes  peas,  beans,  and 
the  clovers,  and  is  noticed  in  the  appendix,  which  treats  of  the 
clovers. 

The  Rosacew  (Rose  Family),  is  not  a  very  large  one,  but  is  of 


63  FAMILIES  OF  GREATEST  WORTH. 

much  importance  on  account  of  the  great  value  of  many  plants 
which  it  contains.  Here  belong  the  pomes,  such  as  apples,  pears, 
quinces,  medlars,  service  berries ;  and  here  are  the  drupes,  such 
as  peaches,  almonds,  apricots,  nectarines,  plums,  prunes,  and 
cherries.  Here  are  found  strawberries,  red  raspberries  and  black 
raspberries,  and  blackberries.  This  may  well  be  called  the 
"fruit"  family.  There  are  also  many  choice  flowers,  including 
the  rose,  potentilla,  spiraea,  hawthorn,  and  Japanese  quince. 

The  SaxifragacecB  (Saxifrage  Family)  affords  currants  and 
gooseberries,  mock  orange,  deutzia,  hydrangea,  and  saxifrage. 

The  Cucurbitacece  (Gourd  Family)  contains  squashes,  pumpkins, 
melons,  musk  melons,  gourds,  and  cucumbers. 

The  Umbelliferce  (Parsley  Family)  includes  the  carrot,  chervil, 
celery,  turnip-rooted  celery,  parsley,  parsnip,  caraway,  coriander, 
fennel,  lovage,  and  sweet  cicely. 

The  Composites  (Sunflower  or  Aster  Family)  is  the  largest 
family  of  flowering  plants,  and  contains  about  one-eighth  of  all 
those  in  the  United  States.  It  affords  a  large  number  of  weeds, 
such  as  thistles,  ox-eye  daisy,  rag-weed,  May-weed,  yarrow,  fire- 
weed,  dandelion,  burdock,  cocklebur,  flea-bane,  and  many  more. 
It  contains  a  large  number  which  are  valuable  for  ornament,  as 
asters,  zinnias,  dahlias,  feverfews,  cinerarias,  chrysanthemums, 
and  sunflowers.  Considering  the  enormous  size  of  the  family, 
about  10,000  species,  we  should  expect  something  profitable  in 
the  line  of  field  and  garden  products.  The  best  it  can  do  is  to 
furnish  lettuce,  two  kinds  of  artichokes,  dandelion,  salsify,  chic- 
ory, endive,  and  sunflower.  There  is  not  a  fruit  nor  a  valuable 
vegetable,  properly  so-called,  nor  a  good  forage  plant,  so  far  as 
we  know,  in  the  entire  list. 

The  EricacecB  (Heath  Family)  is  one  of  much  interest  to  the 
florist.  It  includes  the  cranberry,  blueberry,  huckelberry,  rho- 
dodendron, azalea,  laurel,  heath,  and  trailing  arbutus,  or  May- 
flower. 


FAMILIES  OF  GREATEST  WORTH.  63 

The  C'onvolvulacew  (Convolvulus  Family)  affords  the  sweet 
potato,  morning  glory,  and  cypress  vine. 

The  Solanacece  (Night-shade  Family)  furnishes  the  potato, 
tomato,  egg-plant,  pepper,  ground-cherry,  tobacco,  belladonna, 
bittersweet,  petunia. 

The  Chenopodiacece  (Goosefoot  Family)  affords  the  beet,  spinach, 
orache,Swiss  chard,  and  several  weeds. 

The  PolygonacecB  (Buckwheat  Family)  contains  buckwheat, 
rhubarb,  knot-grass,  sorrel,  several  docks,  and  swartweed. 

The  ScitaminecB  (Gingerworts)  includes  the  cinnamons,  gingers, 
bananas,  and  arrow-roots. 

Tfie  LiliacecB  (Lily  Family)  gives  us  the  lily,  hyacinth,  tulip, 
asparagus,  chives,  garlic,  leek,  onion,  -shallots. 

There  are  several  other  families  which  contribute  more  or  less 
to  the  crops  of  the  field,  orchard  and  garden. 

The  Graminem  (Grass  Family)  is  by  far  the  most  important  of 
any,  and  is  noticed  on  the  succeeding  page. 

For  making  clothing,  there  are  two  families  of  much  value, 
viz: 

The  Malvacece  (Mallow  Family)  containing  okra,  mallow,  hol- 
lyhock, hibiscus,  abutilon,  and  the  cotton  plant,  and 

The  Linacece  (Flax  Family)  including  the  flax,  valuable  for 
its  fiber  as  well  as  the  seeds  which  furnish  linseed  oil. 

The  Labiates  (Mint  Family)  is  quite  remarkable  for  aromatic 
herbs,  and  contains  basil,  balm,  sweet  marjoram,  pennyroyal, 
lavender,  spearmint,  peppermint,  horehound,  hyssop,  thyme, 
summer  savory,  rosemary,  bergamot,  cat-mint,  motherwort  and 
sage. 

Our  leading  trees  belong  to  about  twelve  families,  including 
the  tulip-tree  and  magnolias,  the  basswood,  the  holly,  the  maples, 
the  catalpas,  the  ashes,  the  elms,  the  buttonwood,  the  walnuts, 
and  hickories,  the  oaks,  chestnuts,  beech,  the  birches,  and  alders, 
the  willows,  and  poplars,  and  last,  but  by  no  means  the  least, 


64  GRAMESTELE. 

the  cone-bearing  trees.  The  latter  contains  the  cedars,  cypresses, 
sequoias,  balsams, -firs,  spruces,  larches,  and  pines. 

Gramineae  (The  Grass  Family.) — Tufted  annuals  or  peren- 
nials, usually  herbaceous  and  evergreen ;  with  fibrous  roots,  often 
stoloniferous  or  with  a  creeping  rhizoma.  Stem  (culm)  endo- 
genous, simple  or  branched,  cylindric,  rarely  compressed,  usually 
hollow,  and  closed  at  the  joints,  sometimes  solid,  especially  when 
young ;  the  nodes  solid,  mostly  swollen.  Leaves  parallel  veined, 
rarely  net  veined,  narrow,  undivided,  alternate,  rarely  two  or  more 
at  a  node,  distichous ;  petiole  dilated,  usually  convolute,  sheathing 
the  culm,  margins  free  or  often  united,  especially  in  the  lower 
leaves;  ligule  adnate  to  the  sheath  at  the  base  of  the  blade, 
scarious,  sometimes  only -a  cartilaginous  ring  or  a  fringe  of 
hairs.  Inflorescence,  spicate,  capitate,  racemose  or  paniculate. 

The  Spikelets  consist  of  two,  three  or  more,  distichous,  chaff- 
like  concave  scales  or  bracts  (glumes],  their  concave  faces  to- 
wards the  axis  (rhachilla),  the  2,  or  sometimes  1,  or  rarely  3  or 
more  lower  ones,  and  sometimes  1  or  more  upper  ones  empty, 
the  other  one  or  more  with  one  sessile  flower  in  the  axil  of  each. 

Floral  glume  terete  or  laterally  compressed,  enclosing  a 
1-2-sexual  flower,  and  a  flat,  often  2-nerved  scale  (palea)  with, 
inflexed  edges.  Perianth  of  2  (rarely  0  or  3  or  more)  minute 
scales  (lodicules),  placed  opposite  the  palea.  Stamens  (andrce- 
cium)  usually  3,  sometimes  1,  2,  4,  6  or  more,  even  to  30,  one  of 
which  alternates  with  two  lodicules,  filaments  very  slender, 
anthers  versatile,  2-celled,  linear,  pendulous;  pollen  mostly 
yellowish-white,  sometimes  purple  or  red.  In  rare  cases  the 
stamens  are  monadelphous,  as  in  Streptochcuta.  Ovary  simple, 
free,  sessile,  sometimes  stipitate,  1-ovuled ;  styles  2,  rarely  3,  free 
or  more  or  less  united ;  with  hairy  or  feathery  stigmas ;  ovule 
anatropous. 

Fruit  (caryopsis),  erect,  free  or  often  adherent  to  the  palea, 
and  sometimes  to  the  floral  glume. 


THE  GEASS  FAMILY.  65 

Seed  usually  adnate  to  the  pericarp  (free  in  Sporobolus)  testa 
membranous,  endosperm  farinaceous,  or  somewhat  horny.  Embryo 
at  the  inner  side  of  the  endosperm  at  its  base ;  cotyledon  scutellate ; 
plumule  well  developed ;  radicle  thick,  obtuse,  endorhizal  (with 
a  sheath). 

The  embryo  contains  one,  (often  three  as  in  wheat)  or  more 
rudimentary  roots. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  styles,  stigmas,  lodicules,  and  the 
caryopsis  are  of  great  value  for  describing  grasses,  but  on  account 
of  their  small  size  and  the  difficulty  of  always  finding  grasses  in 
flower,  they  have  not  been  much  employed  for  that  purpose. 

It  is  not  botanically  correct  to  call  any  plants  grasses  unless 
they  belong  to  this  family  (Graminece).  There  are  many  widely 
different  plants  which  in  popular  language  have  the  name  "  grass" 
attached  to  them,  such  as  knot-grass,  rib-grass,  cotton-grass, 
sea-grass,  eel-grass,  sedge-grass,  the  clovers,  and  others,  but  these 
do  not  belong  to  the  family  here  under  consideration. 

The  plants  most  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  grasses  are  the 
CyperaceiB  (sedges),  of  Avhich  there  are  two  thousand  species  or 
more.  They  are  abundant  on  wet  land,  and  often  constitute  a 
large  part  of  what  is  known  as  bog  or  marsh  hay.  Sedges  have 
three  ranked  leaves,  or  leaves  spreading  in  three  directions. 

The  Graminece  (grass  family)  contains  Indian  corn,  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  rye,  rice,  doura,  sorghum,  broom-corn,  sugar-cane,  millet, 
Hungarian  grass,  bamboo,  Timothy,  red  top,  June  grass,  fowl 
meadow  grass,  blue  joint,  buffalo  grass,  orchard  grass,  meadow 
fox  tail,  the  fescues,  rye-grass,  oat-grass,  sweet  vernal,  Bermuda 
grass,  and  many  more  which  contribute  to  the  food  of  domestic 
animals. 

The  grass  family  heads  the  list  of  food  producing  plants,  which 
are  the  foundation  of  all  agriculture.  The  cereals,  such  as  sor- 
ghum, rice,  doura,  maize,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  furnish  a  large 
part  of  the  food  of  the  human  race,  while  the  meadow  and 


66  GRASS  IS  KING. 

pasture  grasses,  together  with  the  cereals,  largely  feed  our  do- 
mestic animals. 

Along  the  low  lands  of  India  and  some  other  tropical  countries, 
many  millions  of  people  subsist  mainly  on  rice,  while  further 
back  on  the  higher  lands,  a  much  larger  number  feed  on  several 
varieties  and  species  of  sorghum.  Sorghum  feeds  the  most 
people  of  any  cereal,  while  wheat  outranks  them  for  making  the 
best  quality  of  food. 

To  assist  in  comprehending  their  great  importance,  let  us 
glance  at  the  figures  as  they  appear  in  the  last  census  of  the 
United  States: 

Bushels.  Value. 

Corn 1,750,000,000  $822,000,000 

Wheat 512,000,000  500,000,000 

Oats 407,000,000  130,000,000 

Barley 43,000,000  29,000,000 

Rye...                                                                       19,000,000  11,000,000 


Total 2,731,000,000  $1,402,000,000 

To  these   figures  must    be   added,  as  belonging  to  the  grass 
family : 

Amount.  Value. 

Hay,  tons 35,000,000  $300,000,000 

Rice,  pounds 1 110,000,000  4,400,000 

Sugar,  hds 179,000  9,000,000 

Molasses,  gallons. ...  14,000,000  4,200,000 


Total $317,600,000 

Add  the  cereals. . .  1 ,402,000,000 


Grand  total  (roundly) $1,800,000,000 

To  these  figures  we  might  add  the  immense  products  of  graz- 
ing,, including  meats,  horses,  cattle,  swine,  hides,  wool.  Live 
stock  alone  foots  up  $1,500,000,000.  The  estimate  for  hay  most 
likelv  includes  the  clovers. 


GRASS  IS  KING.  U7 

Of  the  staple  crops  of  the  United  States,  the  grass  family  con- 
tains about  five-sixths  of  the  total  value. 

The  cereals  and  the  pasture  grasses  the  world  over,  are  of  more 
value  to  man  and  his  domestic  animals  than  all  other  plants 
taken  together!  Vastly  more  than  half  of  the  value  to  man  of 
all  vegetation  belongs  to  one  family,  the  grasses.  "Grass  is  king. 
It  rules  and  governs  the  world.  It  is  the  very  foundation  of  all 
commerce,  without  it  the  earth  would  be  a  barren  waste,  and  cot- 
ton, gold,  and  commerce  all  dead." — (Solon  Robinson.) 

Grasses  are  remarkably  and  evenly  distributed  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  habitable  globe,  in  every  soil,  in  society  with  others 
and  alone ;  under  the  equator  or  in  Greenland,  wherever  moisture 
and  sufficient  heat  favors  the  earth,  there  grasses  are  a  leading 
feature  of  the  flora. 

In  the  whole  world  the  family  ranks  fifth  in  size ;  the  Com- 
positce  ranking  first,  the  Leguminosce  second,  the  Orchidacece 
third,  the  Rubiacece  fourth,  the  .Graminece  fifth.  This  does  not 
convey  an  adequate  idea  of  the  value  or  number  of  grasses  in 
unwooded  regions,  because  the  number  of  individuals  of  many  of 
them  is  exceedingly  large.  Doubtless  there  are  more  individual 
plants  in  the  grass  family  than  are  found  in  all  of  the  others 
named  above. 

In  the  words  of  Dr.  Bessey,  of  Nebraska: 

"When  we  come  to  the  inquiry  as  to  what  proportion  of  plants 
of  a  given  area  are  grasses,  we  find  the  number  varying  very 
much  from  those  just  given.  For  example,  in  forest  regions  the 
actual  number  of  grass  plants  is  much  lower  than  it  is  in  the 
same  region  after  the  forests  have  been  partially  cut  off ;  and  if 
again  we  compare  the  latter  with  the  prairies  we  observe  a  still 
greater  increase.  There  are  many  great  tracts  in  Nebraska,  miles 
and  miles  in  extent,  over  whose  whole  surface  the  grasses  consti" 
tute  fully  nine-tenths  of  the  actual  vegetation." 


68  WHERE  GRASSES  GROW. 

"  Of  the  individual  plants  on  the  great  prairies  of  the  North- 
west, 90,  yes,  99  per  cent  are  grasses!" — (Scribner). 

There  are  about  300  genera  and  3,100  to  3,200  species.  They 
are  the  most  abundant  in  the  temperate  zones,  where  they  often 
clothe  large  tracts  with  a  growth  which  is  fine,  soft,  and  thick. 
Here  the  Poacece  predominate.  In  the  tropics  the  Panicece  are 
prominent ;  many  of  which  are  more  isolated,  growing  singly  in 
tufts  or  small  groups.  In  the  temperate  zones  grasses  are  slender, 
and  seldom  more  than  a  few  feet  in  height ;  in  the  tropics  they 
become  giant  bamboos,  60  or  even  170  feet  high,  and  eight  or  ten 
inches  in  diameter,  approaching  a  tree  in  size. 

In  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  the  grasses  con- 
stitute about  one-twelfth  of  all  the  species  of  flowering  plants. 
A  State  like  Michigan,  Illinois,  or  Massachusetts,  has  been  found 
to  contain  not  far  from  130  species  of  grass.  It  is  not  uncom- 
mon in  the  northern  States  to  find  60  species  within  a  distance  of 
a  few  miles  of  each  other. 

Although  very  few  grasses  possess  brilliant  or  aromatic  flowers, 
and  look  so  humble  and  so  much  alike,  there  are  few  plants 
which  are  more  beautiful  in  "all  stages  of  growth,  whether 
examined  one  by  one  or  in  masses ;  with  the  naked  eye  or  with 
the  microscope." — (American  Agriculturist,  97,  1852.) 

Who  has  not  admired  a  gently  rolling  field  as  the  wind  swept 
over  the  even  tops  of  thick  grain  ?  What  view  surpasses  a  field 
of  waving  grass,  or  a  closely  shaven  lawn?  Grass  is  "a  thing  of 
beauty  and  a  joy  forever.''  It  even  beautifies  the  grave,  spread- 
ing a  green  carpet  over  the  remains  of  friends  gone  before. 

"  Here  I  come  creeping,  creeping  everywhere; 

By  the  rusty  roadside, 

On  the  sunny  hillside, 

Close  by  the  noisy  brook, 

In  every  shady  nook, 
I  come  creeping,  creeping  everywhere." — (Sarah  Roberts.) 


THE  NAME  OF  A  PLANT.  69 

In  very  early  spring,  some  of  the  grasses  begin  to  put  forth 
their  green  leaves,  which  are  soon  succeeded  by  the  culms,  which 
carry  the  flowers.  In  the  northern  States  Poo,  annua  is  the  first 
to  unfold  its  spikelets,  and  spread  its  flowers,  which  are  soon 
followed  by  Oryzopsis,  Poa  sylvestris,  sweet  vernal  and  meadow 
foxtail.  In  central  Michigati,  these  and  perhaps  a  few  more, 
blossom  in  May,  while  June  is  as  profuse  of  grasses  as  it  is  of 
roses.  Quite  a  number  flower  in  July,  and  some  delay  till 
August  and  September.  The  annuals  are  usually  late  in  flower- 
ing, though  some  of  the  perennials  are  very  late ;  for  instance 
the  Muhlenbergias,  Andropogons  and  Chrysopogon  nutans. 

The  Name  of  a  Plant  consists  of  two  words,  first  the  generic 
second  the  specific.  These  must  have  the  Latin  form.  The  gen- 
eric name  is  substantive  and  singular,  and  very  nearly  answers  to 
the  surname  of  a  person ;  the  specific  name  is  most  generally  an 
adjective  (rarely  a  noun),  and  agrees  with  the  noun  in  gender 
and  number.  The  specific  name  is  followed  by  a  name  or  the 
abbreviation  of  the  name  of  the  person  who  applied  that  name  to 
the  plant  under  consideration. 

Latin  names  are  often  objected  to  by  persons  who  cannot  see 
why  the  common  English  names  will  not  answer  every  purpose. 
But  suppose  the  Germans  and  the  French  should  say  the  same 
thing  of  the  plants  they  described?  German  and  French  names 
are  not  so  easy  for  us  as  those  in  the  Latin  form.  Those  in  Latin 
are  often  short  and  easy,  and  have  been  adopted  as  the  common 
names,  such  as  Dahlia,  Crocus,  Ixia,  Orchis,  and  Iris.  There  is 
certainly  an  objection  to  using  such  names  as  Kraschenninikovia, 
Andrzeiofskya,  and  Pleuroschismatypus,  names  which  havo 
actually  been  thrust  onto  plants. 

In  the  use  of  common  names,  many  take  the  liberty  of  making 
their  own  name,  and  then  the  same  name  is  applied  to  more  than 
one  plant. 

A  certain  well  known  tree  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States 


70  COLLECTING   GRASSES. 

is  called  "White-wood,"  in  others,  "Tulip-tree,"  iu  others, 
"White  Poplar,"  in  others,  "  Yellow  Poplar. "  Acer  rubrum  is 
known  by  several  names  in  various  States,  as  "Bed  Maple,'* 
"Soft  Maple,"  and  "  Swamp  Maple. "  Poa  pratensis  goes  by 
the  name  of  "Blue  grass"  in  Kentucky;  in  other  places  it  is 
called  "Kentucky  blue  grass,"  " green  grass, "  "green  meadow 
grass,"  "June  grass,"  "spear  grass,"  and  very  likely  several 
other  names.  One  species  is  known  as  "Timothy,"  "Herd's 
grass,"  "Cat's  tail;"  another  is  known  in  different  places  as< 
"red-top/'  "herd's-grass,"  "Burden's  grass,"  "red  bent," 
"  summer  dew  grass,"  "  small  red-top, "  "  fine  red-top,"  "fowl- 
meadow  grass."  Other  illustrations  appear  in  connection  with 
the  consideration  of  the  species  most  cultivated.  It  is  quite 
necessary,  for  accuracy,  that  only  one  name  be  used  for  each  kind 
of  plant. 

Collecting  and  Preserving  Grasses. — No  person  can  make 
satisfactory  progress  in  this  study  without  frequent  reference  to 
species  with  which  he  has  formerly  met.  For  this  purpose  speci- 
mens can  easily  be  pressed,  poisoned,  dried,  labelled,  classified, 
and  arranged  in  order,  convenient  for  future  reference.  A  very 
simple,  and  in  some  respects  quite  desirable  method,  is  to  pre- 
serve the  grasses  in  the  form  of  dried  bunches.  In  this  way  they 
become  brittle,  and  cannot  well  be  handled  without  damage,  but 
they  preserve  their  appearance,  better  than  those  which  are  sub- 
mitted to  pressure  between  folds  of  paper.  Even  though  these 
dried  bunches  may  not  be  kept  very  long,  their  use  is  to  be 
recommended.  , 

If  it  is  within  the  means  of  the  student,  he  will  find  it  of 
great  advantage  to  transplant  bunches  or  grow  seed  in  his  garden. 
In  this  way  he  can  often  see  the  several  kinds  and  study  their 
peculiarities  at  every  stage  of  growth. 

On  account  of  scattering  seeds  which  produce  young  plants 
that  cannot  be  identified  till  they  have  become  well  established, 


COLLECTING  GRASSES.  71 

the  writer  has  found  it  best  to  separate  kindred  species  by  some 
others  which  are  quite  different.  It  is  very  natural  and  seems 
quite  desirable  to  the  systematic  worker  to  want  his  Poas  all  in 
adjoining  plats,  and  his  Fescues  in  other  adjoining  plats,  but  if 
he  can  succeed  in  keeping  them  separate  when  thus  planted,  he 
will  do  better  than  the  writer  has  ever  been  able  to  do  with  his 
twelve  or  more  years  of  experience.  Another  word  of  advice: 
plant  the  seeds  in  rows,  never  broadcast,  as  this  will  much 
facilitate  weeding  when  the  plants  are  yet  small.  No  agros- 
tologist  will  be  satisfied  to  study  mere  dried  specimens,  as  they 
will  not  reveal  many  points  to  best  advantage,  but  for  permanent 
use  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  the  mode  adopted  in  the  herbarium 
will  be  the  best  for  preserving  grasses.  To  save  time  in  arrang- 
ing thoughts  for  the  following  account  in  reference  to  preserving 
grasses,  the  writer  has  taken  hints  from  an  article  of  L.  H. 
Hoysradt  in  the  bulletin  of  the  Torry  Botanical  Club  for  1878. 

Have  a  tin  vase  made  of  oval  cylindrical  shape,  17  inches  long, 
four  by  six  inches  wide.  It  is  provided  with  a  light  strap  to 
throw  over  the  shoulder,  and  so  attached  to  the  box  near  the 
front  narrow  side  so  as  to  have  the  lid  open  from  the  person  when 
hung  on  the  shoulder.  The  lid  opens  nearly  the  whole  length  of 
one  of  the  flat  sides, — 15  by  4£  inches,  with  £  inch  lap, — made 
to  fit  as  tight  as  possible,  and  fastens  with  a  simple  spring  catch. 

Procure  some  thin,  unsized  paper,  without  printing  on  it,  in 
the  form  of  folded  sheets,  about  11  by  17  inches.  A  poor  quality 
of  printing  paper  is  suitable.  The  driers  are  half  sheets  12  by 
18  inches  and  are  thick  and  free  from  sizing.  The  specimens 
are  left  in  the  thin  sheets  through  all  changes  of  driers,  till 
they  are  thoroughly  dried.  Change  the  driers  every  12  hours 
or  oftener  at  first,  and  submit  them  to  fire  heat  or  direct  sun- 
light. Press  the  pile  with  a  weight  of  fifty  to  seventy  pounds. 
Several  pieces  of  thin  board  12  by  18  inches  will  be  needed. 

Always  preserve  some  of  the  roots,  lower  leaves  and  rhizomas, 


72  PRESERVING  GRASSES. 

if  there  are  any,  as  a  part  of  a  specimen.  Some  part  of  the 
plant  should  be  in  flower.  If  too  long  to  preserve  in  its  natural 
form,  double  the  culm  in  a  zigzag  manner,  so  that  it  shall  not  be 
too  large.  Bite  the  angles  with  the  teeth  to  make  them  submis- 
sive. The  stem  of  June  grass,  or  a  small  thread,  or  the  angle 
pressed  through  slits  in  pieces  of  paper,  are  convenient  to  keep 
the  grass  from  spreading  till  it  is  dried.  Short  pieces  of  fine 
annealed  wire  are  still  better. 

It  is  of  first  importance  as  grasses  are  collected  and  placed  in 
the  portfolio  or  press,  to  be  particular  to  write  on  a  label  the 
name  of  each  species  if  known,  but  by  all  means,  the  locality 
and  date  of  collection. 

Instead  of  changing  the  driers,  plants  can  be  well  dried  by 
binding  them  in  a  portfolio  with  sides  of  wire-netting. 

A  plant  is  well  dried  when  it  rattles,  will  not  stay  bent,  or  does 
not  feel  cool  when  applied  to  the  cheek. 

For  safe  and  long  keeping  the  grasses  must  be  poisoned.  Use 
95  per  cent,  alcohol  nearly  saturated  with  corrosive  sublimate, 
and  apply  with  a  flat  brush,  and  place  the  specimens  again  in 
driers  for  half  a  day  or  more.  Common  white  arsenic  in  alcohol 
is  just  as  good  and  perhaps  better. 

Procure  some  white  paper  llf  by  16-^  inches,  which  is  thick 
enough  to  stand  on  edge  without  doubling  up.  On  this  paper 
fasten  a  specimen  of  one  species  only,  by  pasting  over  it  several 
narrow  strips  of  gummed  paper.  Many  prefer  to  fasten  the  plants 
to  the  paper  with  a  fine  quality  of  glue.  Fasten  the  specimen 
directly  above  the  label  which  is  stuck  fast  to  the  bottom  of  the 
sheet.  Specimens  of  the  same  species  from  different  localities  may 
be  placed  on  the  same  sheet,  each  over  its  own  label.  The  label 
contains  the  generic  and  specific  name,  perhaps  the  common  name 
also,  the  locality,  date  of  collecting,  and  name  of  collector. 
There  are  as  many  styles  of  labels  as  there  are  persons  who  pre- 
serve plants. 


GRASSES  IN   CERTAIN   PLACES.  73 

The  sheets  of  all  the  species  of  the  same  genus,  when  not  too 
numerous,  or  of  a  section  of  it,  should  be  placed  in  a  genus-cover 
which  consists  of  a  folded  sheet  of  firm  manilla  paper,  12  by  17 
inches.  The  generic  name  should  appear  on  the  cover  at  the 
lower  left  hand  corner  after  it  is  folded,  with  the  folded  portion 
to  the  left. 

The  sheets  are  placed  on  the  sides  in  pigeon  holes,  arranged  in 
the  order  as  treated  or  described  in  our  standard  books.  Begin 
with  the  first  genus  at  the  upper  left  hand  pigeon  hole  and  go 
downward  to  the  bottom  of  the  case,  then  begin  at  the  top  of  the 
next  column  of  pigeon  holes. 

When  a  sheet  of  the  herbarium  is  wanted  for  study,  open  the 
door,  find  the  name  on  the  genus-cover  and  draw  t>ut  for  a 
few  inches  the  one  needed  with  all  above  it  in  the  same  hole, 
then  remove  the  genus  cover  needed,  leaving  those  above  in  the 
position  described,  to  show  at  a  glance  just  where  to  replace  the 
specimens. 

Grasses  found  in  certain  Localities. — The  following  grouping 
of  the  grasses  is  founded  on  their  habits  and  localities,  and  will 
hardly  rank  as  a  classification.  It  is  essentially  the  one  proposed 
in  a  prize  essay  by  Prof.  James  Buckman. — (Jour.  Royal  Agrl. 
Soc.  1854.) 

1.  Jungle  or  Bush  G-r asses  are  those  which  generally  grow 
isolated,  in  bunches  or  a  few  plants  here  and  there.  The  bam- 
boos are  examples  for  the  tropics.  In  the  northern  countries 
many  of  the  smaller  grasses  have  a  similar  disposition  of  growing 
in  tufts ;  of  this  kind  we  have  Deschampsia  (Aira)  ccBSpitosa,  L. 
(hair  grass),  Arena  pratensis  (Narrow-leaved  Oat-grass).  Festuca 
elatior,  L.  (Taller  Fescue). 

A  few  others,  if  sown  alone  and  not  very  thick,  not  closely  fed 
or  rolled,  will  assume  the  same  habit.     Of  such  we  have  Festuca, 
ovina,  L.  (Sheep's  Fescue),  Festuca  duriuscula,  L.  (Hard  Fescue), 
Dactylis  glomerata,  L.  (Cocksfoot  or  orchard  grass.) 
10 


74  GRASSES  IN  CERTAIN  PLACES. 

2.  TJie  Aquatic  or  Water  Grasses  are  those  which  elect  to  grow- 
by  the  margins  of  rivers,  in  brooks  or  ditches,  or  around  the 
edges  of  ponds.     With  few  exceptions  they  are  of  little  value 
agriculturally.     Their  presence  is  a  sure  indication  of  lack  of 
drainage.    The  following  are  examples :    Phalaris  arundinacea,  L. 
(Keed  Canary-Grass).  Phragmites  communis,  Trin.   (Seed-Grass), 
Gtyc&ria  aquatica,  Smith,  (Reed  Meadow-Grass),  Glycerin  fluitans 
R.  Br.  (Floating  Meadow-Grass),  Leersiaoryzoides,  Swartz,  (Rice 
Cut-Grass),  Zizania  aauatica,,  L.  and  Z.  miliacea,  Michx.  (Indian 
Rice). 

3.  The  Marine  or  Sea  Side  Grasses,  which  are  chiefly  found 
near  salt  water  or  the  Great   Lakes.     They  are  generally  very 
coarse  and  distasteful  to  cattle.     A  great  proportion  of  the  plants 
in  these  situations,  which   are  cut  and  cured  by  the  farmers  of 
New  England  and  Long  Island,  and  the  Jersey  coast,  and  known 
as  salt  marsh  hay,  are  not  grasses,  but  belong  to  other  families 
of  plants,  such  as  the  Juncacem  and   Cyperacece.     The   rhizomes 
of  some  are  very  useful  in  preventing  the  water  from  washing 
away  the  soil.     Of  marine  grasses  the  following  are  examples : 
Spartina  juncea,  Willd.  (Rush   Salt-Grass),  Glyceria  maritima, 
Wahl.  (Goose-grass),  Psamma  arenaria,  R.  &  S.  (Sea  Mat-weed.) 

4.  The  Meadow  or  Pasture    Grasses. — Most  of  the  grasses  of 
much  value  to  agriculture  belong  to  this  section.     They  are  the 
leading  grasses  of  our  best  meadows,  pastures,  and  the  grazing 
lands  of  the  prairies,  and   have  received  the  most  attention  in 
this  work. 

Some  of  these  are  especially  suited  to, — 

a.  Upland  pastures,  thin  soils. 

b.  Poor,  stiff  soils,  hungry  clays. 

c.  Rich,  deep  loams. 

d.  Meadows  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  subject  to  perennial  floods. 

e.  Irrigated  meadows,  in  which  the  water  can  be  entirely  con- 


HOW  TO  STUDY  THE  GRASSES.  75 

trolled.     Long  lists  have  been  given,  but  there  is  much  risk  in 
prescribing  for  such  a  great  country  as  the  United  States. 

5.  The  Agrarian  Grasses  are'more  properly  those  which  occur 
in  land  under  tillage.  They  are  weeds  such  as  Bromus  secalinus, 
L.  (Chess),  Agropyrum  repens,  L.  (Quack  or  Couch  Grass),  Setaria 
viridis,  Beauv.  S.  glauca,  Beauv.  (Fox  tails),  Panicum  sanguinale, 
L.  (Finger  Grass). 

The  various  Uses  of  Grasses. — These  are, — 
1°.  For  the  grain  as  food,  cereals,  or  drink  as  whisky,  etc. 
2°.  For  pasture. 
3°.  For  hay. 

4°.  For  manufactures,  paper,  substitute  for  lumber,  sugar, 
mats,  hats,  etc. ;  bamboos  for  many  things. 

5°.   For  fuel ;  the  tops  in  close  ovens,  Indian  corn  in  stoves. 
5°.  For  preventing  the  washing  of  banks  and  drifting  of  sands. 
How  to  begin  the  Study. — We  will  suppose  the  learner  has 
but  a  very  limited  knowledge  of  botany  and  is  possessed  of  some 
enthusiasm,  a  good  stock  of  patience  and  perseverance.      The 
latter  quality  is  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  without  it,  suc- 
cess cannot  be  attained.     A  diligent  pursuit  of  the  subject  is 
sure  to  crown  the  student  with  success,  and  this,   for  several 
good  reasons,  is  worth  all  it  costs. 

This  book  contains  many  good  illustrations,  but  a  study  of 
pictures  alone,  with  a  few  superficial  glances  at  plants,  will  never 
make  a  botanist.  There  may  be  a  hundred  names,  rather  uncom- 
mon and  technical,  to  become  familiar  with,  but  this  should  dis- 
courage no  person  of  good  ability.  All  of  these  words  are  defined 
in  the  glossary  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

To  have  the  use  of  a  good,  simple  miscroscope  magnifying  ten 
to  twenty  diameters  is  absolutely  essential.  This  should  be 
mounted  on  a  stage  or  block  on  which  the  flowers  or  other  small 
parts  may  be  laid,  while  both  hands  are  free  for  dissecting  with 


76  HOW  TO  STUDY  THE  GRASSES. 

needles  mounted  in  handles.  Common  number  five  needles, 
broken  in  two,  and  with  forceps  pushed  blunt  end  first  into  the 
pith  of  a  one-year-old  stem  of  European  larch,  are  cheap,  nice, 
and  durable.  There  should  be  some  means  of  adjusting  or  vary- 
ing the  focal  distance  of  the  microscope.  A  small,  sharp  knife, 
and  a  pair  of  fine-pointed  forceps  will  be  very  useful. 

Take  in  hand  a  complete  specimen  of  some  grass,  the  name  of 
which  is  well  known.  We  will  suppose  it  is  a  sample  of  Timothy 
(Phleum  pratense,  L).  If  dry,  the  flowers  or  top  can  be  made 
soft  by  soaking  in  water,  if  warm  all  the  better.  The  roots  are- 
fibrous  ;  the  stalk,  culm,  has  solid,  joints,  nodes,  from  each  of 
which  starts  a  leaf.  Towards  the,  base  of  the  stalk,  the  nodes 
are  close  together,  and  one  or  more  may  be  enlarged  or  swollen 
into  a  simple  tuber  or  corm,  sometimes  improperly  spoken  of  as 
the  bulb.  For  some  distance  above  each  node,  the  sheath  of  the 
leaf  rolls  like  a  scroll  around  the  stem,  one  edge  covering  the 
other  closely,  but  usually  not  growing  fast  together.  At  the 
upper  end  of  the  sheath,  the  blade  of  the  leaf  spreads  away  from 
the  culm.  Just  where  the  blade  leaves  the  stem,  at  the  throat 
of  the  sheath,  is  a  delicate  ring,  fringe,  or  often  a  thin,  scarious 
appendage.  This  is  the  ligule,  the  form  of  which  is  usually 
constant  in  all  the  plants  of  one  species. 

The  leaves  are  alternate,  one  at  each  node,  and  two  ranked,  i.  e., 
there  are  two  rows  of  leaves  alternating  with  each  other  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  stem.  The  leaves  are  parallel  veined,  and 
may  be  stripped  or  torn  lengthwise  into  narrow  pieces.  The 
beginner  may  consult  the  chapter  which  treats  of  leaves. 

The  top  of  the  stem  bears  a  cylindrical  spike  of  spikelets,  some 
of  which  on  close  examination,  it  will  be  seen,  have  very  short 
branches.  Select  a  small  portion  of  the  material  from  the  spike 
and  place  in  a  drop  of  water,  while  it  is  seen  with  the  microscope. 
With  one  needle  hold  a  portion  fast,  and  with  the  other  or  with 
the  forceps  separate  the  parts  of  the  specimen. 


HOW  TO  STUDY  THE  GRASSES.  77 

Figure  63  illustrates  what  should  be  seen.  At  2  are  the  outer 
glumes,  looking  much  alike  in  shape  and  size.  At  the  base  one 
appears  to  be  a  trifle  inside  of  the  other.  They  are  tipped  with 
a  mucronate  awn,  and  are  ciliate  on  the  back.  If  cut  in  two 
crosswise,  the  section  of  a  glume  appears  in  shape  much  like  a 
broad  letter  V.  At  the  base  of  the  letter  is  a  rib.  Such  glumes 
are  keeled. 

At  3  is  the  flowering  glume,  covering  the  palea,  which  is  rather 
smaller.  Still  within  the  palea,  if  the  specimen  be  in  flower,  may 
be  seen  three  slender  filaments,  each  bearing  an  anther  at  the 
extremity.  At  the  center  is  a  small  ovary,  from  the  top  of  which 
spread  two  feathery  stigmas.  Turn  to  the  page  where  Phleum 
pratense,  L.  is  described,  if  you  have  not  already  done  so. 

Do  not  hurry,  but  try  hard  to  imderstand  everything  as  you 
proceed,  and  whenever  you  come  to  a  word  which  is  not  under- 
stood, consult  the  glossary  or  some  other  portion  of  the  book. 
In  a  note  book  make  a  list  of  all  the  new  technical  words,  per- 
haps with  their  definitions,  and  frequently  study  them  over  like 
a  spelling  lesson,  till  they  become  familiar.  With  this  thorough- 
ness on  the  start,  you  will  very  soon  master  the  difficulties  and 
progress  will  be  certain  and  satisfactory.  Review  often  and  thus 
become  well  acquainted  with  the  first  lessons.  This  review  may 
not  be  so  interesting  as  advanced  lessons,  but  it  is  time  spent  in 
a  very  profitable  manner. 

The  beginner  is  likely  to  hurry  and  run  over  too  much  ground. 
He  is  almost  certain  not  to  understand  what  he  looks  over.  He 
becomes  superficial,  and  often  fancies  he  is  learning  a  good  deal, 
when  in  reality  he  possesses  scarcely  anv  definite  information  of 
value. 

The  following  are  suggested  as  desirable  grasses  for  the 
beginner  to  study :  Ray  or  rye-grass,  Lolium,  quack  grass  and 
wheat,  barley,  rye,  wild  rye.  It  makes  no  difference  which  is 
taken  up  first.  The  reader  will  soon  see  that  those  last  named 


78  EFFECTS  OF  OVER -FEEDING  GRASSES. 

agree  in  several  respects,  and  belong  to  the  same  tribe, 
HordeecB.  In  each  case,  free  use  can  be  made  of  the  excellent 
illustrations,  but  the  careful  examination  of  each  species  must 
not  be  omitted. 

Another  lot  of  closely  related  species  are  sweet  vernal,  canary- 
grass  and  vanilla  grass.  One  genus  contains  June  grass,  wire 
grass,  fowl-meadow  grass  and  a  few  others  which  are  common. 
Orchard  grass  is  of  fair  size  and  well  suited  to  the  beginner. 

It  is  an  excellent  plan,  where  possible,  to  take  up  in  connec- 
tion with  each  other,  especially  in  reviews,  grasses  which  are 
nearly  related.  Any  two  such  species  may  very  profitably  be 
critically  compared. 

"  There  is  no  way  for  the  student  to  do  but  to  take  the  thing 
described  in  his  hand,  and  patiently  compare  it  with  the  defini- 
tion given,  until  he  distinctly  sees  the  application  of  every  part. 
He  must,  therefore,  take  a  cornstalk  or  some  other  grass,  and 
study  its  structure  until  he  has  made  out  every  statement  in  the 
definitions  given." — (Gould). 


CHAPTER  V. 
NATIVE   GRAZING    LANDS. 

Effects  of  Over-Feeding  Dry  Districts. — The  grazing  of 
sheep  and  cattle  often  change  the  character  of  vegetation  for  the 
worse  instead  of  better. 

Every  farmer  knows  the  value  of  sheep  to  exterminate  wild 
raspberries,  blackberries  and  most  other  bushes,  but  many  times 
they  also  introduce  troublesome  weeds  as  well. 

Dr.  A.  Gray,  in  Am.  Jour.  Science  in  1874,  notices  a  contribu- 
tion by  Dr.  Shaw  to  the  Linnean  Society,  in  reference  to  the  ill 
effect  of  overstocking  the  dry  grazing  districts  of  Southern 


EFFECTS  OF  OVER -FEEDING  GRASSES.  79 

Africa  with  Merino  sheep.  Troublesome  burrs  are  introduced, 
which  crowd  the  grasses  besides  injuring  the  wool. 

When  first  introduced,  the  sheep  fed  mainly  on  the  grass, 
which  in  this  dry,  hot  country,  began  to  fail.  There  were  too 
many  sheep  for  the  moderate  supply  of  grasses.  Soon  the  sheep 
fed  on  the  brush  and  scrub,  and  the  ground  left  to  them,  and  to 
obnoxious  and  poisonous  herbs.  As  the  vegetation  became 
scarce,  bitter  and  nauseous  plants  of  the  neighboring  region 
came  in  and  helped  to  extirpate  the  indigenous  flora,  and  render 
it  more  and  more  unfit  for  sheep.  As  these  were  forced  to  eat 
diagreeable  food,  it  greatly  injured  the  mutton.  What  is  true 
of  Southern  Africa  is  proving  true  in  many  parts  of  the  dry, 
native  pastures  of  the  United  States.  Numerous  herds  will  soon 
over  feed  and  Cf  stamp  out"  the  native  grasses. 

Continuous  manuring  of  any  kind,  continuous  mowing  or 
pasturing, — a  continuous  treatment  of  any  kind  will  soon  pro- 
duce a  change  in  the  plants. 

Dr.  Samuel  Aughey,  in  Science,  1883,  in  speaking  of  the 
Nebraska  flora,  says:  "A  remarkable  peculiarity  is  its  change- 
able character.  This  is  conspicuous  among  the  grasses.  In  1865, 
much  of  the  uplands  of  Lancaster  county  was  covered  with 
buffalo-grass.  By  1871  nearly  all  of  this  species  had  disappeared, 
and  its  place  was  taken  by  blue-joints  (Andropogon  furcatus, 
A.  scopanus,  etc.)  interspersed  with  Boutelouas,  Chrysopogon 
nutans,  Sporobolus,  etc.  In  1878  the  blue-joints  disappeared, 
and  the  Boutelouas  usurped  their  place.  Similar  phenomena 
were  observed  in  almost  every  county  in  the  State.  During  the 
last  two  years  Chrysopogon  (Sorghum}  nutans  hus  been  gaining 
in  Eastern  Nebraska  over  all  others.  This  tendency  to  change  is 
common  in  other  States.  When  old  Fort  Oalhoun,  above 
Omaha,  was  occupied  by  the  military,  twenty-five  years  ago, 
Kentucky  blue-grass  was  brought  in  baled  hay  to  that  post  from 
the  South.  It  spontaneously  took  root  and  spread  in  every 


80  NATIVE    PASTURES. 

direction,  and  now  it  can  be  found  in  prairies  thirty  miles  away. 
Under  favorable  conditions  the  wild,  native  grasses  produce 
from  one  to  three  tons  or  more  of  hay  per  acre." 

Professor  Shelton,  for  Central  Kansas,  says:  "Our  prairie 
grasses  cannot  endure  close  pasturing  or  heavy  tramping.  No- 
toriously, the  most  promising  wild  pastures,  after  three  or  four 
years  of  even  moderately  close  grazing,  become  permanently 
occupied  by  coarse,  rank-smelling,  worthless  weeds." 

"In  Nebraska,"  says  Dr.  C.  E.  Bessey,  in  1885,  "There  have 
been  notable  migrations  of  plants  within  the  past  twenty 
or  thirty  years.  The  buffalo  grasses  of  various  kinds  were 
formerly  abundant  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  State,  now  they 
have  retreated  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles,  and  have 
been  followed  up  by  the  blue-stems  (Andropogon  and  Crysopo- 
ffon).  The  blue-stems  now  grow  in  great  luxuriance  all  over 
great  parts  of  the  plains  of  Eastern  Nebraska,  where  twenty 
years  ago  the  ground  was  practically  bare,  being  but  thinly 
covered  by  buffalo  grasses.  In  Dakota  it  is  the  same,  the  tall 
blue-stems  are  marching  across  the  plains,  and  turning  what 
were  once  but  little  better  than  deserts,  into  grassy  prairies." 

Native  Pastures. — With  reference  to  grazing  in  Colo- 
rado, R.  A.  Cameron,  in  the  National  Live-Stock  Journal, 
1872,  says:  "  The  rainfall  is  precipitated  mainly  in  the  spring 
as  rain,  and  in  the  winter  entirely  as  snow.  The  summer 
months  are  dry,  with  rare  rainfalls,  and  these  are  short,  followed 
immediately  by  cloudless  skies.  The  grasses  grow  rapidly  in  the 
spring,  but  are  cut  short  by  the  drought,  and  ripen  and  dry  up 
in  June.  It  is  the  absence  of  moisture  in  any  quantity  during 
the  warm  weather  that  not  only  completely  cures  the  native 
grasses,  but  which  preserves  them  unfermented,  sweet  and 
nutritious  during  the  summer  and  winter.  They  assume  a 
brown  color,  and  give  a  sombre  aspect  to  the  great  plains, 
striking  the  eye  of  the  farmer  from  the  New  England  States 


NATIVE  PASTURES. 


81 


very  unfavorably.     But,  short  and  brown  as  thev  are,  they  are 
no  doubt  the  richest  in  the  world." 

Some  of  the  leading  grasses  which  form  the  native  pastures 
of  Texas  are:  Gama— grass,  (Tripsacum),  Panicum  virga- 
tum,  a  kind  of  Panic  grass,  Indian  grass,  Chrysopogon  nutans, 
Andropogon  scoparius  and  A,  provincialis.  The  last  two  are 
known  as  blue-stems,  and  the  latter  as  broom  grass,  or  broom- 
sedge.  Tricuspis  ( Triodia)  sesleroides,  fall  red-top,  is  prominent 
in  places.  A  vast  number  of  smaller  species  help  make  up  the 
pastures,  but  they  are  less  widely  diffused  or  less  prominent  than 
those  named  above. 

In  the  Eeport  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1870,  T. 
R.  Dodge  states:  "The  relative  value  of  these  species  as  forage 
grasses  differs  very  widely,  a  few  of  them  being  entirely  worth- 
less. The  largest  number  of  the  species  could  be  dispensed  with 
without  manifest  disadvantage  to  the  grazing  interests  of  the 
country.  The  relative  value  of  the  twelve  most  important  species 
is  exhibited  in  the  following  table  of  per  centum  estimates,  one 
hundred  representing  the  aggregate  value  of  the  twelve : 


— 

Missouri  River  Re- 
gion. 

a 

1 

Andropogon  (furcatus)  provincialis                  

Per  Cent. 
40 

Per  Cent. 
16 

Andropogon  scoparius                                        

20 

10 

Chrysopogon  (Sorghum)  nutans  

20 

12 

Sporobolus  hetorolepis  -  -  . 

12 

1 

Buchloe  dactyloides 

5 

5 

Bouteloua  oligostachya 

o 

10 

Spartina    cvnosuroides 

2 

2 

Festuca  ovina 

o 

20 

Festuca  macrostachya 

o 

5 

Brnimufi  KalTiii 

Q 

8 

Poa  serotina                                      -         

o 

8 

Stipa  viridula                             -   

o 

5 

11 


82  NATIVE  GRASSES  OF  THE   PACIFIC   SLOPE. 

These  estimates  can  only  be  approximate  for  that  time.  The 
first  three  are  quite  tall,  and  make  the  main  bulk  of  hay  in  the 
wild  regions  referred  to. 

I  have  taken  the  following  from  General  Alvord's  Bulletin,  as 
quoted  in  the  Agricultural  Grasses  of  the  United  States,  by  Dr. 
G.  Vasey: 

"  In  the  arid  Rocky  Mountain  plateaus,  the  grasses,  as  they 
stand  on  the  soil,  are  cured  in  the  sun  during  the  summer,  the 
action  of  heat  retaining  and  concentrating  in  the  stalks  the 
sugar,  gluten  and  other  constituents  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed. It  is  so  cold  and  so  dry  in  those  elevations  that  there  are 
neither  heat  nor  moisture  to  rot  them.  And  the  snows  are  so 
fine  (save  in  some  exceptional  seasons)  in  that  cold  atmosphere, 
that  they  are  so  blown  by  the  winds  into  drifts,  that  four-fifths 
of  the  soil  is  never  covered  by  them. 

"  The  difficulties  in  lower  altitudes  than  those  I  have  described, 
have  been,  that  after  a. warm  spell  and  a  thaw,  the  snow  freezes 
to  a  crust  and  the  grass  is  matted  down  by  the  ice,  and  kept  from 
the  stock. 

"  In  Texas  the  grazing  grounds  are  mostly  at  so  low  a  level 
above  the  sea  that  the  grasses  rot  in  winter.  Hence,  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  winter,  the  animals  there  are  often  poor.  The  region 
higher  than  3,000  feet  above  the  sea,  fit  for  winter  grazing, 
includes  nearly  all  up  to  the  timber  line,  of  Montana,  Idaho, 
Wyoming,  Utah,  Nevada,  Colorado  and  New  Mexico,  and  five- 
sixths  of  Arizona,  one-half  of  Dakota,  one-third  of  Nebraska, 
one-fifth  of  Kansas,  one-fourth  of  Texas,  and  one-sixth  each  of 
California,  Oregon  and  Washington  Territory.  This  embraces 
about  one-fourth  of  the  area  of  the  whole  United  States.*' 

The  Native  Grasses  of  the  Pacific  Slope.— The  following 
are  free  extracts  from  the  notes  of  C.  G.  Pringle,  taken  in  1881 : 

One  going  into  the  Southwest  from  New  England,  where  all 


NATIVE  GRASSES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE.  83 

deforested  areas  are  closely  sodded  with  perennial  grasses,  is 
struck  with  the  insignificance  of  permanent  grasses  there  and 
the  almost  entire  absence  of  sod. 

To  speak  of  Arizona  and  Southern  California:  In  the  bottom 
of  the  valleys  and  along  the  line  of  the  water-courses,  though 
water  may  not  flow  over  the  surface  except  during  the  period  of 
summer  or  winter  'rains,  and  in  soil  more  or  less  impregnated 
with  alkali,  the  traveler  occasionally  meets  with  natural  meadows. 

DisticJilis  maritima,  with  its  creeping  roots  forming  a  close 
network  in  the  soil,  and  Sporobolus  Wrightii,  growing  in  great 
clumps,  chiefly  form  these  meadows.  The  former  has  wiry 
stems,  and  its  foliage  is  tough,  but  animals  accustomed  to  sub- 
duing spring  opuntias  and  thorny  shrubs  thrive  on  it.  The 
latter  is  a  rigid,  coarse  grass,  its  culms  often  four  to  five  feet 
high  and  as  thick  as  a  goose  quill.  "When  its  stems  are  but 
recently  grown  animals  browse  away  their  upper  portion,  and 
cull  out  somewhat  from  amongst  the  bristling  stumps  of  the 
stems  of  former  years,  standing  dense  and  stiff,  some  two  feet 
in  height,  the  long  radical  leaves  of  the  plant.  To  arrive  after 
nightfall  and  a  long  forced  drive  to  reach  grass  and 
water  upon  such  a  meadow,  and  to  be  compelled  to  picket  our 
horses  on  such  pasturage,  closely  gnawed  away  by  the  herds  of 
ranches  far  and  near,  seems  hard,  but  from  May  till  August  the 
valleys  and  plains  afford  nothing  better. 

Sporobolus  cryptandrus  var.  strictus  has  much  the  habit  and 
value  of  S.  WrigTitii.  Sporobolus  asperifolius  occupies  patches  of 
wet  soil  with  a  fine  herbage,  and  its  abundant  and  leafy  sterile 
culms  yield  forage  more  easily  appreciated  by  animals.  Pant  cum 
obtusum  growing  in  low  lands,  particularly  in  the  partial  shade 
of  shrubs,  contributes  a  trifle  of  forage  by  its  long,  wiry,  but 
leafy  creeping  stems. 

In  low  lands  scattered  tufts  of  Andropogon  saccharoides  and 
Trichloris  fasciculata  contribute  a  better  food  to  animals,  as 


84  NATIVE  GRASSES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 

acceptable,  probably,  as  any  afforded  by  the  perennial  grasses. 
Panicum  lucopliceum  and  Andropogon  contortus,  in  their  scat- 
tered tufts  on  the  mesas  and  foot  hills,  are  of  similar  value. 

Hilaria  rigida  on  sandy  plains  has  hard  stems  and  tough  leaves, 
but  animals  are  forced  to  consume  it.  Panicum  fuscum,  P. 
capillare  var.,  and  P.  colonum  are  rather  weeds  .of  tilled  fields, 
and  as  forage  plants  probably  equal  Panicum  Crus-galli,  P. 
sanguinale,  Setaria  glauca  and  8.  viridis.  With  them  may  be. 
classed  Helopus  punctatus,  Eragrostis  Purshii  var.  diffusa,  Chlo- 
ns  alba,  Leptochloa  mucronata,  as  they  are  tender  and  eaten  with 
avidity. 

Agrostis  verticillata,  on  the  margins  of  water  courses,  is  a 
tender  and  nutritious  morsel;  so  also  Eatonia  oUusata,  less 
abundant  in  Arizona,  Agrostis  exarata  by  brooks,  and  Phalaris 
intermedia,  more  widely  scattered  along  streams  and  in  wet,  cul- 
tivated soil. 

To  cattle  straying  over  miles  of  arid  wastes,  nibbling  at  the 
leaves  of  thorny  trees  and  shrubs,  or  pulling  here  and  there  a 
bitter  weed,  such  grasses  as  Setaria  caudata,  Tricuspis  pulchella 
and  mutica,  Muhleribergia  debilis,  and  even  Aristida  Americana 
and  A.  Humboldtiana,  and  Bouteloua  aristidoides  and  other 
species,  all  scattered  in  thin  tufts  over  hill  and  mesa,  furnish 
dainty  bits  seized  upon  with  avidity.  When  the  summer  rains 
fall  abundantly  these  species  renew  their  growth,  or  spring  up 
from  seed,  and  grow  rapidly,  so  as  to  cover  the  soil  with  a  pretty 
close  growth  of  herbage,  which  furnishes  an  abundant  pasturage 
to  fatten  herds  during  the  autumn  months.  Only  a  small  part 
of  this  is  consumed  while  green ;  but  drying  up  in  the  droughts 
of  October  and  November,  and  being  little  weather  beaten  in 
that  dry  climate,  it  serves  to  sustain  the  herds  through  the 
winter  and  early  spring  months.  The  more  densely  covered 
areas  are  sometimes  mown  for  hay. 

Cottea  makes  its  growth  entirely  as  far  as  I  have  observed, 


NATIVE  GRASSES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE.  85 

during  the  summer  rains,  and  this  and  the  two  species  of  Pappo- 
pliorum  may  be  classed  in  point  of  economic  value  with  the 
species  of  Aristida  and  Bouteloua,  though  apparently  less  com- 
mon than  these. 

Hilaria  cenchroides,  a  perennial,  not  rare  on  hills,  grows 
freely,  fruits  during  the  dry  months,  from  April  to  July,  and 
contributes  a  little  to  save  stock  from  starvation.  So  likewise 
does  Mulilenbergia,  both  wiry  but  nutritious  grasses.  Under  the 
summer  rains  they  grow  more  luxuriantly ;  and  the  latter  growing 
in  bushy  clumps,  retains  in  its  wiry  stems  much  nutriment,  so 
that  it  supplies  the  more  common  sort  of  hay  in  the  towns  and 
at  the  stop  stations,  being  pulled  by  the  Mexicans  or  Indians, 
and  brought  in  on  the  backs  of  donkeys  or  on  carts,  even  as  late 
as  May,  when  it  is  gray  with  age. 

Poa  annua  var.  stricta  and  Festuca  tnicrostachys  furnish  u 
few  tender  bits  of  food  to  cattle  following  up  the  mountain 
streams  in  spring. 

Beside  streams  of  mountain  canyons,  Imperata  Brasiliensis 
var.  at  any  season  furnishes  tall,  leafy  clumps,  to  be  eaten  down 
eagerly  by  the  animals  fortunate  enough  to  attain  to  them.  On 
the  higher  slopes  of  the  mountains,  particularly  in  those  turned 
from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  under  the  partial  shade  of 
pines  and  oaks,  I  found  in  May,  Atropsis  (Glyceria)  Californica 
and  Miihleribergia  virescens  growing  in  clumps,  standing  so  close 
together  as  to  remind  one  of  a  northern  meadow.  The  former 
furnishes  the  tenderest  and  sweetest  of  pasturage,  and  the  latter 
is  a  soft  and  leafy  grass.  These  two  species  largely  compose  the 
"deer  parks"  of  those  mountains,  but  unfortunately  for  our  horses, 
while  we  were  camping  on  the  mountains  they  began  at  such  an 
altitude  (6000  feet),  that  we  could  seldom  get  our  horses  up  high 
enough  to  take  the  benefit  of  them. 

In  Arizona  the  coarse  grass  of  the  valleys  was  called  by  a 
Spanish  name,  which  sounded  as  I  used  to  hear  it  pronounced 


86  NATIVE  GRASSES  OF  THE  PACIFIC  SLOPE. 

by  miners  and  Mexicans  "  Saccatone,"  though  I  suppose  it 
began  with  a  "  Z."  The  name  was  applied  to  Sporobolus 
Wriglitii  and  similar  species.  This  and  one  other  are  all  the 
names  in  nse  among  the  Mexicans  to  distinguish  the  shorter, 
softer  grasses  of  the  mesas. 

Beyond  the  cereals,  notably  barley  most  extensively  sown  for 
hay,  the  agricultural  grasses  are  scarcely  employed  in  California 
agriculture. 

Where  permanent  pasturage  and  hay  is  wanted,  and  where  it  is 
possible  to  secure  and  maintain  this  by  irrigation,  Alfalfa  (Medi- 
cago  sativa)  is  employed  almost  exclusively.  I  saw  but  a  very 
few  fields  of  Timothy,  and  those  were  confined  to  the  higher 
valleys  that  could  be  irrigated  by  mountain  springs.  In  winter 
and  early  spring  the  hills  and  plains  are  green  with  a  species  of 
Crane's-bill  (Erodiuni),  called  by  the  Spaniards  "  Alfilerilla.''" 
Formerly  Arena  fatua  covered  the  hills  and  valleys  of  Califor- 
nia, but  it  has  been  reduced  in  extent  by  sheep. 

The  native  grasses  contribute  but  an  insignificant  portion 
toward  the  maintenance  of  the  flocks  and  herds  of  California. 
On  the  open  ranges,  cattle  scour  large  areas,  browsing  upon 
every  green  thing  that  is  not  too  repellant  or  too  repulsive. 

Air  a  (Deschampsid)  danthonioides  offers,  on  damp  mesas,  etc., 
patches  of  fine,  soft  herbage,  which  is  eaten  with  avidity  by 
animals. 

Deyeuxia  Aleutica,  growing  in  dense  tufts  on  the  northern 
coast  and  adjacent  hills,  is  often  sufficiently  abundant  to  be  of 
importance  in  pasturage ;  although  it  is  a  coarse  grass,  cattle  eat 
it  readily. 

Deyeuxia  Bolanderi,  sparingly  scattered  through  damp  forests, 
with  Hierochloa  madropliylla  and  Phalaris  amethystina  (these 
observed  at  Mendocino)  are  most  tender  and  palatable,  but  are  of 
very  slight  amount. 

Deyeuxia   rubescens,  a  hard  grass,  grows  in  small,  scattered 


AGRICULTURAL  GRASSES  OF  MONTANA.  87 

patches,  or  thin  tufts,  on  pine  barren  plains,  where  there  is 
nothing  else  to  feed  deer. 

Elymua  condensatus  grows  in  thin  clumps,  or  small,  scattered 
patches ;  its  leaves,  though  tough  and  hard,  are  stripped  off  hy 
hungry  animals. 

Oryzopsis  cuspidata,  Sporobolu*  airoides  and  Stipa  speciosa  are 
tufted  grasses,  scattered  over  the  Mojare  desert,  and  furnish  an 
occasional  bite,  palatable,  though  tough  to  chew,  to  antelopes, 
and  to  strolling  cattle  and  sheep. 

Glyceria  pauciflora,  found  on  ruins  of  mountain  tarns,  is  a 
tender  and  sweet  grass  to  deer  or  stock  coming  to  drink. 

Melica  imperfecta  and  Stipa  setigera,  tufted  species  frequenting 
mesas  and  hills,  are  tender  and  nutritious  in  April  and  May. 

Throughout  the  mountains  where  cattle  cannot  be  herded  so 
successfully,  sheep  are  everywhere  led  by  their  herders,  swarming 
like  vermin,  and  creeping  up  to  the  very  pinnacles  of  rock  or  to 
the  snow  line,  nibbling  or  tramping  in  the  dust  all  vegetation. 
No  grass  at  ever  so  great  an  altitude,  but  must  contribute  its 
mite  towards  the  sustenance  of  these  flocks. 

Thus  Stipa  stricta,  Sporobolus  depauperatus,  S.  gracillimus, 
Agrostis  varians,  Trisetum  canescens,  Melica  stricta,  Poa 
tenuifolia  and  P.  Pringlii,  on  bare  mountain  tops  and  around 
mountain  springs  and  rills,  must  all  yield  a  dainty  mouthful  to 
the  miserable  dust  begrimed  sheep,  compelled  in  their  ascent 
to  live  on  the  foliage  of  shrubs  and  on  brittle  herbs. 

Deyeuxia  equivalvis,  a  tender  and  sweet  grass,  grows  on  the 
verge  of  mountain  brooks. 

Agricultural  Grasses  of  Montana. — The  following  notes  are 
from  a  paper  read  at  the  fifth  meeting  of  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Agricultural  Science,  by  F.  Lamson  Scribner: 

"Although  located  so  far  north,  and  at  no  point  less  than 
three  thousand  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  horses  and  cattle 
thrive  upon  the  '  ranges '  throughout  the  year  without  care  or 


88  AGRICULTURAL  GRASSES   OF   MONTANA. 

shelter.  In  the  valleys  the  standing  grass  cures,  with  all  the 
nutritive  properties  held  within  the  tissues,  affording  excellent 
hay  for  winter  grazing. 

The  region  abounds  in  a  great  variety  of  species,  the  whole 
number  discovered  being  one  hundred  and  twelve.  Some  are 
rare;  many  have  little  value,  while  one  or  two  can  only  be 
treated  as  troublesome  weeds. 

Broom-sedge,  Broom-grass,  or  Beard-grass  (Aridrqpoffon  sco- 
parius),  is  widely  dispersed  from  Maine  to  Texas,  and  west  to  the 
Eocky  Mountains.  It'  grows  in  dry,  thin,  or  sandy  soil,  and 
thus  serves  a  good  purpose  in  furnishing  fair  forage  where  little 
else  will  grow.  In  some  parts  of  the  Missouri  river  and  Rocky 
Mountain  regions  this  grass  is  very  abundant,  and  is  highly 
prized,  both  for  hay  and  for  grazing.  In  the  East  it  is  looked 
upon  as  comparatively  worthless. 

Eeed  Canary -grass  (Phalaris  arundinacea)  grows  naturally 
in  Montana  in  wet  places,  along  streams,  etc.,  and  adds  a  little 
to  the  grazing. 

'Mountain  Timothy'  (Alopecurus  pratensis,  var.  alpestris}. 
This  grass  is  quite  common  at  elevations  of  from  five  to  seven 
thousand  feet  above  the  sea,  growing  in  rich  soil  along  mountain 
streams,  and  frequenting  the  so-called  ' mountain  meadows.' 
In  the  large,  open  park,  a  few  miles  west  of  Neihardt,  there  are 
many  acres  covered  wibh  this  grass,  and  when  I  passed  through 
the  place,  August  14th,  it  was  being  harvested  for  hay.  It 
yields  a  large  bulk  of  fine,  long,  bright-colored  hay,  and  is  highly 
valued.  It  has  tall,  slender,  leafy  culms,  three  feet  high,  with 
an  oblong  head,  similar  to  that  of  Timothy,  whence  its  local 
name,  but  the  heads  are  shorter,  thicker,  and  conspicuously 
hairy.  For  the  more  elevated  meadows  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  and  for  northern  latitudes,  there  is  no  grass  which  so 
highly  commends  itself  as  this,  both  for  hay  and  for  summer 
grazing.  It  is  closely  allied  to  the  European  Meadow  Foxtail. 


AGRICULTURAL  GRASSES  OF  MONTANA.  89 

Feather  Grass  (Stipa}.  Several  species  of  this  genus  are  com- 
mon to  the  region,  the  most  prevalent  being  Stipa  comata  and 
Stipa  viridula.  They  are  often  found  together,  and  are  usually 
associated  with  Poa  tenuifolia  and  Kaleria  cristata.  The  first 
named  (S.  comata)  is  the  least  valuable,  but  the  more  hardy  of 
the  two,  growing  on  bench  lands  in  soil  too  gravelly  and  thin  for 
even  Poa  tenuifolia.  It  has  very  narrow  and  involute  radical 
leaves,  a  few-flowered  panicle,  and  smooth,  twisted  and  more 
or  less  curled,  hair-like  beards,  or  awns,  five  inches  long.  Both 
this  and  the  Stipa  viridula  are  sometimes  called  wild-oat  grass. 
The  latter  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  of  the  Stipas.  Stipa  spar- 
tea,  Porcupine  Grass,  occurs,  but  happily  in  no  great  abundance. 
'Bunch  Grass"  (Oryzopsis  cuspidata]  is  very  abundant  on  the 
sandy  bench  lands  along  the  Missouri  and  other  rivers.  It 
thrives  in  soil  too  dry  and  sandy  for  the  growth  of  other  valuable 
species,  and  is  much  esteemed  for  grazing. 

Alpine,  or  "  Native  "  Timothy  (Phleum  alpinum). — This 
species,  which  closely  resembles  our  cultivated  Timothy,  is  com- 
mon in  the  mountain  districts,  growing  near  streams,  at  elevations 
of  from  6,000  to  8,000  feet.  In  the  mountains  back  of  Fort 
Logan,  I  saw  this  grass  associated  with  Phleum  pratense,  and  it- 
was  the  more  luxuriant  plant  of  the  two — not  so  tall,  perhaps, 
but  growing  to  the  height  of  two  feet,  with  stouter  and  more 
leafy  culms.  The  common  Timothy  (Phleum  pratense)  has  been 
introduced,  and  succeeds  well  when  irrigated,  But  there  are  a 
number  of  native  grasses  which  would  yield  equally  fine  and 
more  abundant  crops  with  less  care. 

Drop-seed  Grass  (Sporobolus). — There  are  several  species  of 
this  genus  more  or  less  common,  but  none  of  them  sufficiently 
abundant  or  valuable  to  have  received  local  names. 

Agrostis  grandis  is    a  species   of    bent-grass,  common    along 
the  rich,  moist  banks  of  streams  in  the  mountain  districts.     This 
is  certainly  a  valuable  grass  to  introduce  into  cultivation. 
12 


90  AGRICULTURAL  GRASSES  OF  MONTANA. 

Reed  Bent  Grass  (Deyeuxia). — There  are  quite  a  number  of 
species  of  this  genus  native  to  the  country,  all  possessing  some 
value  for  forage,  being  readily  eaten  by  stock.  Grasses  that  grow 
naturally  on  these  dry  bench  lands  without  irrigation,  and  hold 
the  ground  in  spite  of  excessive  grazing,  deserve  special  attention, 
for  these  are  the  species  which  will  best  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  farmer  when  it  becomes  necessary  for  him  to  cultivate 
grasses  on  these  same  lands. 

"Buffalo  Grass,"  Mesquite  (Bouteloua  oligostachya). — The  true 
Buffalo  Grass  (Buchloe)  was  not  seen,  but  this  Bouteloua,  which 
the  ranchmen  of  Montana  recognize  under  that  name,  is  a  no  less 
valuable  species  for  grazing.  It  frequents  the  bench  lands  at 
elevations  of  from  3,000  to  4,500  feet,  and  not  uncommonly  covers 
wide  areas.  Its  strong,  perennial  roots  and  fine  curly  leaves 
make  a  dense  turf  that  yields  a  large  amount  of  forage,  and  no 
other  species  seems  better  to  withstand  the  tramping  of  stock 
than  this. 

' June  Grass"  (Kmleria  cristata). — This  is  one  of  the  most 
common  grasses  of  the  bench  lands,  disputing  possession  of  the 
soil  with  Poa  tennifolia,  with  which  it  is  almost  always  associated. 
On  the  dry  benches  it  is  seldom  over  a  foot  high,  but  on  irrigated 
grounds  it  grows  to  the  height  of  two  feet  or  more,  and  makes 
excellent  hay.  "June-grass"  is  the  only  local  name  I  heard 
applied  to  this  species.  [It  may  be  needless  to  say  here  that  this 
is  not  the  grass  called  "June-  grass"  in  the  east.] 

"Bunch-grass,"  "Meadow-grass,"  "  Spear-grass,"  etc.,  (Poa). 
— There  are  a  large  number  of  Poas  found  throughout  the  north- 
ern portion  of  our  country,  and  one  and  all  are  excellent  pasture 
grasses.  Wherever  grasses  grow  at  all,  from  the  sea-shore  to  the 
mountain-top,  from  the  arctic  zone  to  the  antarctic,  this  genus 
has  its  representatives.  In  Montana,  Poa  nemoralis  ascends  to 
the  altitude  of  9,000  feet.  At  this  elevation  it  is  dwarfed  in 
habit,  but  lower  down  the  mountain's  side  it  soon  becomes  taller, 


AGRICULTURAL  GRASSES  OF  MONTANA.  91 

and  makes  a  valuable  forage  plant.  Kentucky  Blue-grass  (P. 
pratensis)  is  truly  indigenous,  and  grows  quite  abundantly  along 
the  streams  and  rivers.  Poa  tenuifolia  may  well  be  regarded  as 
the  grass  of  the  country.  No  species  withstands  the  long  summer 
drought  so  well,  and  it  constitutes  the  chief  forage  upon  the  dry 
bench  lands.  It  has  several  local  names,  such  as  "Bunch-grass/ 
"Red-top,"  "Red-topped  Buffalo-grass/*  etc.  In  the  drier  soils 
the  culms  are  low,  less  than  a  foot,  and  slender,  usually  of  a  red- 
dish color,  and  the  foliage  is  reduced  to  the  short  and  dense 
radical  tuft ;  but  the  plant  responds  readily  to  richer  soils  and 
better  situations,  and  when  growing  along  streams  or  on  irrigated 
land,  it  makes  a  luxuriant  growth  of  foliage  and  attains  the 
height  of  two  or  three  feet.  As  fine  a  field  of  natural  grasses  as 
I  saw  in  the  Territory,  or,  in  fact,  as  I  have  ever  seen  anywhere, 
included  Poa  tenuifolia,  Kwleria  cristata,  Stipa  viridula,  Stipa 
domata,  as  the  leading  species,  the  Poa  being  the  most  abundant. 
In  this  field  the  Stipas  were  unusually  fine,  overtopping  the  other 


Manna-grass  (Glyceria] — Three  species  are  common;  Reed 
Meadow-grass  ( G.  aquatica),  a  well-known  grass  in  the  eastern 
and  middle  States,  grows  in  similar  situations  here — wet  grounds 
and  along  the  borders  of  streams — attaining  the  height  of  from 
three  to  five  feet.  Glyceria  nervata  is  still  more  abundant. 

"Great  Bunch-grass,"  "Buffalo  Bunch-grass,"  (Festuca  sca- 
brella). — This  is  one  of  the  characteristic  grasses  of  the  country. 
On  the  mountain  slopes  and  foot-hills,  at  elevations  of  over  6,000 
feet,  it  is  the  prevailing  species,  constituting  one  of  the  most 
valuable  forage  grasses  of  the  winter  ranges.  It  often  covers 
many  thousand  acres  of  the  "mountain  parks,"  and  during  August 
it  is  cut  in  large  quantities  for  hay ;  it  makes  excellent  feed,  both 
for  horses  and  cattle,  but  is  rather  too  hard  and  coarse  for  sheep. 

Sheep's  Fescue  (Festuca  ovina). — Tne  name  of  "Bunch-grass" 
is  applied  also  to  this  species,  which,  in  point  of  altitude,  occu- 


92  AGRICULTURAL  GRASSES  OF  MONTANA. 

pies  a  belt  just  below  that  held  by  the  "Great  Bunch-grass." 
Several  varieties  are  recognized,  and  all  afford  excellent  grazing 
for  all  kinds  of  stock. 

There  are  several  species  of  Bromus,  one  of  which  is  much  like 
Schrader's  grass;  in  general,  however,  these  broTme-grasses  are 
little  esteemed. 

"Blue-joint,"  or  "Blue-stem"  (Ag  ropy  rum  glaucum,  var.) — 
There  is  no  grass  in  Montana  that  the  settlers  more  highly  value 
for  hay  than  this  "Blue-joint"  or  "Blue-stem,"  so  named  because 
of  the  decided  bluish  tint  of  its  leaves  and  stalks.  In  appearance 
it  resembles  our  common  witch  or  couch-grass  (Agropyrum 
repens),  and  has  by  some  been  regarded  as  a  variety  or  form  of 
that  species.  Like,  the  couch-grass,  this  has  creeping  roots, 
making  it  equally  objectionable  in  cultivated  lands.  It  grows 
naturally  on  the  dry  bench  lands  and  river  bottoms,  and  although 
the  yield  per  acre  is  not  large,  the  quality  of  the  hay  is  judged 
unsurpassed  by  any  other  species. 

" Fox-tail  Grass,"  Squirrel-tail  Grass  (Hardeum  jubatum). — 
This  is  a  common  grass  in  the  low  countries,  especially  where 
the  soil  is  generally  moist.  It  is  considered  a  great  nuisance,  for 
when  associated  with  other  grasses  it  entirely  destroys  their  value 
for  hay.  The  long  and  sharp-pointed  beards  or  arms  stick  fast 
in  the  nose  and  mouth  of  horses,  often  penetrating  the  flesh,  and 
cases  are  reported  where  they  have  caused  the  death  of  the  ani- 
mals. 

Lyme-grass,  Wild-rye,  (Elymus  condensatus),  is  a  large,  native 
grass  sometimes  cut  for  hay,  but  is  not  very  valuable,  holding  a 
rank  much  like  the  eastern  species. 

At  Jefferson  City,  June  28,  altitude  about  5,000  feet,  one 
would  rarely  see  in  any  part  of  the  country  a  finer  looking  or 
better  sodded  field  of  grass  than  was  observed  at  this  place.  The 
strong  -and  luxuriant  growth  of  the  grasses,  all  native  species, 
gave  sufficient  proof  of  the  resources  of  the  Territory  in  this 


NATIVE  GRASSES  OF  THE  GREAT  BASIN.  93 

direction.  I  venture  to  say  she  will  not  find  beyond  her  borders 
more  valuable  species  either  for  hay  or  for  pasturage. 

Poa  tenuifolia,  Kwleria  cristata,  Stipa  viridula,  and  Poa  pra- 
tensis  (three  feet  high)  were  the  prevailing  species;  then  came 
Stipa  comata,  Agropyrum  glaucum,  A.  divergens,  Elymus  con- 
densatus,  Poa  Nevadensis,  Agrostis  scdbra,  and  Hordeumjubatum ; 
along  the  streams  or  growing  in  the  water  were  Glyceria  aquatica, 
G.  mrvata,  Beckmannia  erucceformis,  Alopecurus  aristulatus,  and 
Catabrosa  aquatica. 

Some  species  extend  over  many  degrees  north  and  south,  others 
range  within  narrow  limits.  Some  of  wide  range  have  their 
limits  of  greatest  abundance  confined  to  a  few  degrees.  So  it  is 
in  the  matter  of  elevation  above  the  sea.  Some  species  range 
from  sea  level  to  nearly  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  others  are 
found  only  at  certain  elevations,  extending  but  a  little  above  or 
below  a  given  altitude,  while  others  again  may  have  a  considerabe 
range,  but  it  is  only  within  narrow  limits  that  they  are  able  to 
conquer  in  the  struggle  for  life  and  gain  almost  complete  posses- 
sion of  the  soil. 

With  a  little  experience  one  could  tell  in  Montana  with  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  certainty  the  altitude  of  his  position  by  the 
prevailing  grasses  about  him.  Bouteloua  olygostachya  and  Ory- 
zopsis  cuspidata  were  never  abundant  above  4,000  feet.  Agropy- 
rum glaucum  ranged  a  little  higher,  while  Poa  tenuifolia,  Kceleria 
cristata,  and  Stipa  viridula  prevailed  up  to  about  5,000  feet. 
Agropyrum  divergens  became  the  leading  species  between  5,000 
and  5,500,  when  Festuca  ovina  took  the  field  and  usually  held  its 
own  up  to  6,000  feet,  when  it  in  turn  gave  way  to  Festuca  scdbrella, 
which  has  its  line  of  greatest  vigor  between  6,000  and  7,000  feet. 

Native  Grasses  of  the  Great  Basin.— For  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico  in  this  basin,  Dr.  J.  T.  Rothrock  ventures  the  asser- 
tion that  for  want  of  water  there  will  always  be  much  waste  land 
so  far  as  raising  crops  is  concerned.  For  want  of  water,  neither 


94  NATIVE  GRASSES  OF  NORTHERN  MEXICO. 

of  these  territories  have  reached  anything  like  the  real  possibilities 
of  the  soil  and  climate. 

Sereno  Watson,  a  very  careful  observer  who  has  spent  much 
time  in  the  Basin,  makes  a  long  report  in  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Exploration  of  the  Fortieth  Parallel.  He  observes  that 
the  climate  is  characterized  by  a  very  dry  atmosphere,  small 
amount  of  rain  and  snow,  by  a  cold  winter  and  a  correspondingly 
hot  summer.  No  portion  of  this  whole  district  is  destitute  of 
some  vegetation,  even  in  the  driest  seasons,  excepting  only  the 
alkali  plats.  The  vegetation  possesses  a  monotonous  sameness  of 
aspect,  and  is  characterized  mainly  by  the  absence  of  trees,  by 
the  want  of  a  grassy  greensward,  the  wide  distribution  of  a  few 
low  shrubs,  and  by  the  universally  prevalent  gray  or  dull  olive 
color  of  the  herbage. 

The  turfing  "buffalo"  or  "grama"  grasses,  which  make  the 
plains  east  of  the  Eocky  Mountains  a  vast  pasture  for  the  bison, 
deer,  and  antelope,  are  here  unknown.  The  grass  grows  in 
sparsely  scattered  tufts,  dying  away  with  the  early  summer  heat. 
The  two  or  three  species  that  mat  into  a  sward  are  confined  to 
alkaline  meadows  and  are  nearly  worthless  for  pasturage. 

Native  Grasses  of  Northern  Mexico. — During  the  summer 
of  1885,  C.  G.  Pringle  collected  and  studied  the  flora  of  this 
country,  mainly  in  the  Mexican  State,  Chihuahua.  By  request 
he  has  furnished  full  notes,  from  which  the  following  are  taken: 

With  respect  to  the  cultivated  species,  I  think  I  shall  surprise 
you  by  declaring  that  though  I  botanized  carefully  in  the  irrigated 
and  tilled  valleys  as  well  as  on  the  plains,  and  on  the  hills  and 
mountains  of  every  geological  formation  in  that  State,  and  from 
the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  season,  I  saw  not  a  single  plant 
of  the  exotic  grasses  commonly  cultivated  in  the  United  States ; 
not  a  stalk  of  Phleum  pratense  (Timothy),  nor  Poa  pratensis 
(June  grass),  nor  Agrostis  vulgaris  (red-top),  nor  any  other  whose 


NATIVE  GRASSES  OF  NORTHERN  MEXICO.  95 

tender  aud  nutritious  herbage  so  largely  maintains  the  flocks  and 
herds  of  the  American  farmer. 

The  only  attention  which  I  have  seen  the  Mexican  ranchero 
bestow  upon  grass  is  to  inclose,  rarely,  a  limited  area  of  valley 
sod,  formed  of  hard  and  tough  species  like  Sporobolus  Wrightii, 
Disticlilis  mantima  and  Panicum  obtusum,  and  use  the  field  to 
restrain  a  few  saddle  horses  and  work  oxen.  He  provides  scarcely 
any  store  of  fodder  for  his  animals,  so  when  the  growth  of 
vegetation  is  arrested  by  the  frosts  of  winter,  they  must  bite 
shorter  the  half  dead  but  still  nutritious  herbage,  and  must 
range  widely  to  do  this,  and  when  the  growths  of  the  spring 
months,  always  feeble,  have  been  entirely  checked  by  the  wither- 
ing droughts  which  reach  their  worst  in  June,  they  must,  if  they 
can,  maintain  life  by  browsing  shrubs,  cactuses,  etc. 

To  supply  the  wants  of  the  animals  kept  in  the  cities  gives 
employment  during  winter  to  many  of  the  poorer  class,  who 
hawk  about  the  streets,  in  ox-carts  and  on  the  backs  of  donkeys, 
bundles  of  dead  grass  gathered  on  far  away  hillsides  or  plains. 
By  the  beginning  of  March  the  neighboring  rancheros  are  selling 
green  wheat  and  barley  in  the  same  way,  and  they  plant  maize 
from  early  till  late  to  succeed  these.  Great  stacks,  freshly  cut, 
may  be  seen  walking  into  town  early  in  the  morning  with  don- 
key's legs,  scarcely  more  than  the  feet  visible — a  droll  sight. 

The  exotic  grasses  which  accompany  cereals  as  weeds  of  tillage 
seem  to  be  very  few  in  northern  Mexico.  Of  the  108  species  on 
my  list,  I  count  only  three  such :  Panicum  sanguinale,  L.,  P. 
Crus-galli,  L.,  Phalarix  canariemis,  L. 

"Nearly  all  the  grasses  range  northward  from  Chihuahua  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  into  the  United  States.  All  my  species  of 
Aristida  and  Stipa,  and  some  species  of  Muhlenberyia,  are  as  yet 
undetermined. 

Paspalum  Hallii,  Y.  &  S.,  is  confined  to  moist  situations,  as 
the  vicinity  of  streams  and  the  banks  of  irrigating  ditches.  Its 


9C  NATIVE  GRASSES  OF  NORTHERN   MEXICO. 

herbage  is  tender,  its  growth  strong,  and  it  might  be  cultivated 
to  advantage  in  fields  capable  of  profuse  irrigation. 

Panicum  reticulatum,  Torr.,  is  a  soft  and  tender  annual,  grow- 
ing in  low,  scattered  tufts  on  rich  plains,  and  contributes  not  a 
little  to  the  sustenance  of  the  herds  which  range  over  them. 

Panicum  ccespitosum,  Swartz.  On  rich,  moist  soil  this  forms 
a  low,  dense  mat  of  tender  and  leafy  herbage,  relished  by  animals. 
Although  only  an  annual,  it  might  well  be  employed  in  irrigated 
fields  for  grazing. 

Eriochloa  polystachya,  H.  B.  K.,  like  Panicum  sanguinale,  L., 
is  a  weed  in  cultivated  fields,  and  often  yields  large  crops  of  a 
quality  which  would  be  considered  good  in  the  southwest. 

Hilaria  cenchroides,  H.  B.  K.  Here  this  is  a  plant  of  much 
importance  to  the  stock  grower.  It  forms  a  close  perennial  sod 
in  patches  of  greater  or  less  extent  on  the  plains  and  mesas.  As 
its  culms  are  few  and  small  and  its  leaves  short,  its  yield  is  light, 
but  it  is  a  pasture  grass  of  good  character  and  quality. 

Hilaria  mutica,  Benth,  called  in  Arizona  "Black  Gramma," 
is  considered  one  of  the  most  valuable  grasses  in  that  region.  It 
grows  in  dense  perennial  clumps  about  a  foot  broad,  and  these 
growing  close  together,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  species,  occupy 
areas  of  considerable  extent,  usually  in  depressions'  of  plains  or 
mesas,  sometimes  even  on  hillsides.  Except  during  the  rainy 
season,  about  August,  the  plants'  show  few  living  leaves,  but  at 
all  times  of  the  year  the  numerous  branching  stems  contain  nutri- 
ment. The  clumps  are  detached  from  the  soil  by  a  blow  with  a 
mattock  directed  at  their  base,  and  this  gives  rise  to  the  saying 
that  hay  is  cut  in  Arizona  with  a  hoe.  As  the  dead  leaves  and 
their  sheaths  adhere  for  a  long  time  on  the  slow  growing  peren- 
nial branches,  a  patch  of  this  grass  presents  a  dark  grey  appear- 
ance, which  gives  it  the  name  of  Black  Gramma.  Its  stems  are 
very  hard,  so  that  I  was  at  first  surprised  that  animals  could  eat 
it  at  all.  My  horses  soon  got  tired  of  it,  preferring  softer  grasses. 


NATIVE  GRASSES  OF  NORTHERN   MEXICO.  97 

Heteropogon  contortus,  R.  &  S.  This  is  probably  the  most 
abundant  grass  of  dry  hills  of  igneous  rock  thinly  covered  with 
soil.  It  grows  in  tall,  narrow  clumps,  and  is  a  perennial  with 
numerous  leafy  branches.  Stock  show  a  preference  for  other 
grasses  if  such  are  to  be  found.  The  hay  on  sale  in  Chihuahua 
last  spring  seemed  to  be  mainly  composed  of  this  plant,  usually 
dead  when  gathered,  and  blanched  by  winter  weather.  During 
autumn  I  found  its  seeds  a  nuisance.  Their  long  bearded  and 
twisted  awns  sent  the  slender  and  rough  seeds  into  my  clothing, 
and  often  into  my  flesh.  Sheep,  goats,  and  even  donkeys  must 
find  these  seeds  a  terrible  annoyance. 

Andropoyon  Itirtiflorus,  Kth.,  is  a  fine,  soft,  leafy  plant,  grow- 
ing in  dense  clumps,  but  apparently  confined  to  hedges,  etc. 

Andropogon  saccliaroides,  Sw.,  grows  in  clumps  three  or  four 
feet  tall.  In  valleys,  and  the  moister  depressions  of  the  plains, 
this  is  a  grass  of  some  importance. 

Some  ten  species  or  more  of  Arixtida  are  mostly  bunch  grasses 
of  hills  and  mountains,  of  average  frequency  in  such  situations, 
and  of  full  average  quality,  contribiiting  largely  toward  the 
upland  pastures. 

There  are  two  new  species  cf  Stipa  also,  tall  and  tender  plants, 
excellent  for  forage  but  not  abundant. 

There  are  many  species  of  Mulilenbergia  of  more  or  less  value. 
M.  Texana,  Thurber,  is  the  mesquite  grass  of  our  southwest,  and 
one  of  the  most  valuable  species  of  those  regions,  common  over 
mesas  and  hills.  It  is  such  a  favorite  with  animals  that  it  is 
exterminated  except  when  growing  under  the  protection  of 
thorny  shrubs,  usually  mesquite  bushes  (species  of  Prosopis  and 
Acacia).  Its  leaves  are  short  and  scanty,  but  its  branching, 
perennial,  wiry  stems  are  nutritious,  and  at  all  seasons  furnish 
forage  which  is  greatly  relishel  by  all  kinds  of  stock.  In  Ari- 
zona the  Indians  bring  it  during  winter  and  spring  long  distances 

into  the  towns  to  sell,  the  men  tying  the  bundles  behind  and 
13 


98  NATIVE  GRASSES  OF  NORTHERN   MEXICO. 

beside  them  on  their  ponies,  and  the  women  carry  them  on  their 
backs  or  heads,  trundling  painfully  behind  the  ponies.  How 
many  times  I  have  contended  with  the  horrid  mesquite  bushes  to 
gather  an  armful  of  this  grass  to  carry  joyfully  to  my  hungry 
and  jaded  horses. 

Muhlenfiergia  gracilis,  Trin.,  thrives  on  cool,  grassy  summits 
of  mountains,  perhaps  the  most  important  element  in  the  pastur- 
age of  such  ranges.  It  grows  in  small  clumps  about  two  feet 
high,  and  is  rather  wiry  and  tough. 

Sporobolus  Wrightii,  Munro,  grows  along  water  courses,  form- 
ing great  clumps,  nearly  contiguous,  four  to  six  feet  high. 
These  are  browsed  down  by  stock  within  a  ^oot  or  two  of  the 
ground.  The  culms  are  stout  and  stiff  and  the  leaves  long  and 
conspicuous.  They  appear  to  be  acceptable  to  animals.  It  is  to 
this  species  notably  that  the  Mexicans  apply  the  name  Zacaton 
or  Zacate  grass,  meaning  great  grass.  The  same  name  is  given 
to  other  species. 

Bouteloua  Mrsuta  is  a  common  grass  on  rocky,  dry  soil  of  the 
hills  and  plains,  with  rather  wiry  culms.  The  quality  is  equal 
to  the  most  of  the  species  enumerated,  and  furnishes  an  impor- 
tant proportion  of  the  forage  of  the  region. 

Bouteloua  oligostachya,  Torr.,  var.  pallida,  Scrib.,  is  the  most 
abundant  species  of  the  plains,  especially  abundant,  and  forms  a 
close  sod  in  the  less  arid  portions.  In  amount  of  yield  and  in 
quality  it  is  surpassed  by  no  common  grass  of  the  plains,  and  is 
the  one  native  species  adapted  to  permanent  mowing.  I  believe 
it  would  bear  the  effects  of  close  grazing  in  enclosed  areas. 

Bouteloua  Harvardi,  Vasey,  I  find  to  be  the  most  valuabla 
pasture  grass  of  the  hills  and  mesas  around  the  city  of  Chihua- 
hua. It  is  perennial  and  forms-  a  sod  more  or  less  interrupted. 
It  is  tender  and  nutritious,  and 'is  kept  closely  cropped  during 
most  of  the  year. 


NATIVE  GRASSES  OF   NORTHERN  MEXICO.  99 

Six  or  eight  other  species  and  varieties  of  Bouteloua  furnish 
more  or  less  pasture. 

Diplachne  dulia,  Benth,  sends  up  here  and  there,  over  hills 
from  perennial  shoots,  a  few  late,  succulent  stems,  especially 
relished  by  animals.  It  seems  probable  that  this  grass  would 
succeed  under  good  cultivation  without  irrigation,  and,  if  so,  no 
species  native  to  Mexico  would  be  likely  to  yield  crops  of  greater 
amount  or  of  superior  quality. 

Diplachne  imbricata,  Scrib.,  is  similar  to  the  last  in  habit  and 
quality,  and  would  probably  succeed  as  well,  but  only  on  rich  soil 
with  copious  irrigation. 

Arundo  donax,  L.,  grows  on  the  banks  of  streams,  and  is 
stripped  of  its  broad  leaves  by  cattle,  which  crowd  upon  the  tall 
canes,  straddling  them  to  bring  the  leaves  within  reach. 

Eragrostis  erosa,  Scrib.,  is  a  tall,  soft,  leafy  bunch  grass  of  the 
mountains,  than  which  none  can  be  more  acceptable  to  stock. 
Eragrostis  lugens,  Nees,  is  a  closely  related  species,  of  similar 
habit  and  quality. 

In  these  notes  I  have  said  little  about  the  possibility  of  the 
species  mentioned  for  cultivation,  because  it  does  not  to  me  seem 
possible  that  Mexican  agriculture  can  in  this  generation,  or  in 
several  generations,  attain  to  the  cultivation  of  grasses.  I  can- 
not say  in  what  way  their  methods  are  in  advance  of  those  of  the 
ancient  Egyptians  and  Syrians ;  certainly  one  is  astonished  to 
find  numerous  parallels  between  their  customs  and  practices  and 
those  of  the  ancients. 

In  regard  to  other  forage  plants  which  interest  stock  growers, 
I  have  seen  a  little  lucern  or  alfalfa  grown  there,  but  only  a  little. 
The  place  it  occupies  in  the  American  southwest  is  there  filled 
by  barley,  wheat,  and  corn. 

The  clovers,  native  or  introduced,  are  almost  entirely  wanting 
in  the  southwest.  Of  course  there  are  a  large  number  of  plants 
of  many  natural  orders  which  help  to  sustain  animal  life,  and  I 


100  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  SEEDS. 

can  attest  from  observation  that  there  are  few  plants  so  repulsive 
to  taste  or  so  spicy  that  they  are  not  occasionally  appropriated 
by  animals,  according  to  the  extremity  of  their  hunger.  I  used 
to  think  that  nothing  but  starvation  could  induce  cattle  to  nibble 
at  horrid  opuntias,  as  I  have  seen  them  doing  during  drought. 

The  mesquite  tree,  Prosopis  juliflora,  of  the  southwest  is 
worthy  of  especial  mention.  It  is  a  godsend  to  those  regions. 
Its  abundant  and  nutritious  pods,  resembling  those  of  our  field 
bean,  begin  to  fall  in  August  before  the  grass  has  made  much 
advance  under  the  midsummer  rains,  and  afford  much  relief  to 
the  half  famished  stock.  I  have  gathered  sacks  full  of  them  for 
my  horses  as  I  have  journeyed  through  those  arid  districts. 

Seeds  are  Distributed  in  a  great  variety  of  ways — through 
the  agency  of  wind,  water,  snow,  animals,  including  man  him- 
self, who  purposely  or  unintentionally  accomplishes  more  than 
any  of  the  other  agents. 

The  small  size  of  the  seeds  of  most  grasses  is  a  great  help  in 
their  distribution.  Many  of  them  remain  attached  to  the  glumes 
and  palea,  or  even  to  some  of  the  branches,  and  others  are  pro- 
vided with  beards,  hooks,  or  awns,  all  of  which  make  it  easy  for 
them  to  be  carried  about  by  the  wind,  water,  snow,  or  animals. 

"  It  would  seem  that  nature  has  appointed  every  animal  as  a 
special  disseminator  of  the  plants  which  furnish  it  with  food. 
We  have  seen  the  activity  of  the  rodent  in  scattering  the  fruits 
of  the  Nuciferae,  and  of  birds  in  sowing  broadcast  the  seeds  of 
fruit-bearing  plants,  and  the  ruminants  seem  no  less  active  in 
performing  a  similar  work  for  their  favorite  grasses.  The  great 
efficiency  of  animals  as  disseminators  of  seeds  appears  more 
marked  when  we  regard  them  in  masses.  The  herds  of  reindeer 
and  elk  on  the  plains  of  northern  Europe  and  Asia,  the  bison  on 
the  prairies  of  North  America,  or  the  herds  of  naturalized  horses 
and  cattle  on  South  American  pampas,  migrating  from  place  to 
place  in  immense  masses,  cannot  fail  to  sow  as  they  pass  along  a 


GRASSES    FOR    CULTIVATION.  101 

host  of  seeds  which  adhere  to  their  coats,  or  which  they  have 
swallowed  and  drop  uninjured  upon  the  soil." — (Prof.  A.  N. 
Prentiss,  in  Prize  Essay.) 

A  few  examples  may  be  given  to  illustrate  the  distribution  of 
grass  seeds.  The  panicles  of  Panicum  capillare,  when  ripe, 
easily  separate  from  the  culm  and  are  freely  tossed  about  and 
carried  by  the  wind,  scattering  seeds  as  they  go  for  long  distances, 
even  leaping  over  fences  and  bushes. 

When  snow  arrives  its  surface  becomes  slightly  packed,  and 
seeds,  with  their  chaff  or  branches  still  left  on  the  dead  culms, 
are  occasionally  torn  away  and  drifted  for  long  distances  before 
the  wind. 

Small  seeds  in  the  mud  adhere  to  the  feet  of  many  kinds  of 
animals,  and  are  thence  transported  from  one  place  to  another. 

The  elongating  and  spreading  root-stalks  of  some  grasses  and 
clovers  enable  them  to  spread  and  occupy  different  ground  or 
more  ground. 

The  chapter  on  the  geographical  distribution  of  grasses  will  be 
given  in  the  second  volume. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

GRASSES  FOR  CULTIVATION. 

PHLEUM,    L.       TIMOTHY. 

Spikelets  in  spike-like  panicles,  1-flowered,  rachilla  very  short 
and  jointed  above  the  empty  glumes,  extending  beyond  the  floret, 
rarely  bearing  a  rudimentary  flower.  Flower  perfect.  The 
empty  glumes  persistent,  nearly  equal,  membranous,  much  com- 
pressed laterally,  keeled,  awned,  or  mucronate.  Floral  glume 
much  shorter,  broader,  hyaline,  truncate  or  toothed,  3-5-nerved. 
Palea  narrow,  hyaline.  Lodicules  2,  hyaline,  toothed  on  the 
outer  margins.  Stamens  3.  Styles  distinct,  long,  slender,  hairy. 
Caryopsis  ovoid,  enclosed  in  the  floral  glume,  and  palea,  free. 


FIG.  62. 


PHLEUM   PRATENSE,  L.,  TIMOTHY.  108 

Erect  annuals  or  perennials  with  flat  leaves.     Ten  species  in  X. 
and  8.  temperate  and  arctic  regions. 

P.  pratense,  L.,  Timothy,  Herd's-tirass,  Meadow  Cat's 
Tail. — Panicle  cylindrical.  Empty  glumes  truncate  with  a 
scarious  tip,  and  a  hispid  keel. 

This  is  the  best  known,  most  extensively  sown,  and  one  of  the 
most  profitable  grasses  of  any  in  the  United  States.  In  Pennsyl- 
vania and  some  other  States,  Agrostis  vulgaris  is  called  "herd's 
grass,"  while  at  the  north  this  is  known  as  "red  top."  There 
are  several  other  grasses  called  "cat's  tail"  in  different  portions 
of  our  country.  The  first  common  name  comes  from  Timothy 
Hanson  of  Maryland,  who  introduced  the  grass  from  England 
about  1720.  The  next  name  comes  from  a  man  by  the  name  of 
Herd,  who  found  it  growing  in  Xew  Hampshire  and  began  its 
cultivation. 

In  1760  or  '61,  Peter  Wynch  took  seeds  of  it  from  Virginia  to 
England.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  very  likely  also 
indigenous  to  some  portions  of  the  United  States.  It  is  Avidely 
distributed  in  north  Africa,  western  Asia,  and  other  portions  of 
the  world.  Timothy  is  a  perennial  not  likely  to  be  mistaken  for 
any  other  grass,  and  in  fact  this  is  about  the  only  one  that  is 
generally  known  by  all  farmers. 

The  leaves  are  short  and  flat,  and  on  good  soil  the  stem  is  from 
two  to  four  or  more  feet  high,  each  bearing  one  stiff,  erect,  rough 
spike  as  long  and  as  thick  as  a  lead  pencil.  The  plant  is  rather 
coarse  to  the  touch  and  sight. 

Having  a  large  bulk  of  stems,  with  few  leaves,  the  hay  wastes 
but  little  in  transportation.  The  grass  stands  up  well,  the  hay 
is  easily  cured,  heavy  for  its  bulk,  presents  a  good  appearance, 
and  suffers  less  than  many  other  grasses  when  allowed  to  go  to 
seed  before  cutting. 

Fig.  62.— 7,  Plant  of  Phleum  prate-use,  L.;  2,  spikelet;    5,  floral  glume  and  paiea; 
'keletof  P.  alyinum ;  5,  spikelet  of  P.  arenariutn ;  6,  floral  glume;  7,  base  of 


culm  of  P.  pralenxe,  showing  one  enlarged  solid  internode,  tubor,  or  corm,  improperly 
called  a  "  bulb."— (Trinius  and  Scribner.) 


104  PHLEUM   PRATENSE,    L..  TIMOTHY. 

Everyone  in  town  and  country  knows  the  grass  as  soon  as  he 
sees  it  and  can  distinguish  it  from  all  others,  hence  a  leading 
reason  why  it  is  raised,  fed,  and  sold.  Consumers  buy  Timothy 
and  fear  to  buy  anything  else,  even  though  it  were  better,  because 
they  do  not  know  what  it  is.  They  will  buy  even  if  it  is  dead 
ripe. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  a  well  known  and  popular  grass, 
perennial  rye  grass,  generally  raised  in  England.  After  a  long 
time  if  a  grass  or  fruit  becomes  well  known,  and  it  has  good 
qualities  if  not  the  best,  people  buy  it  because  they  know  what 
they  are  getting. 

In  this  country  Timothy  is  often  sown  alone,  at  the  rate  of 
about  eleven  pounds  to  the  acre.  The  sowing  itsually  occurs  in 
autumn  with  wheat  or  rye,  or  in  the  spring  with  oats  or  barley. 
It  is  often  sown  as  the  only  forage  crop  on  moist  land  or  on 
strong,  clay  loam,  but  on  lighter  land  it  is  usual  to  sow  on  some 
red  clover  also.  If  quite  sandy,  clover  without  any  true  grass  is 
generally  sown.  Timothy  is  two  to  four  weeks  behind  red  clover 
in  coming  Into  flower  ready  for  the  mower.  Among  its  other 
good  qualities,  Timothy  seeds  very  freely,  yielding  G  to  10  or 
more  bushels  of  cleaned  seed  to  the  acre ;  and  this  is  easily  saved 
and  threshed  with  a  flail  or  a  machine,  can  be  easily  cleaned  and 
separated  from  seeds  of  weeds,  and  can  be  put  onto  the  market 
in  abundance  and  sold  cheaply.  It  only  takes  from  one  to  two 
pecks  to  sow  an  acre,  and  this  costs  but  little. 

While  Timothy  has  many  good  qualities  to  recommend  it,  it 
has  many  marked  defects.  When  sown  with  clover,  it  makes 
but  a  small  growth  and  must  be  cut  young,  if  the  clover  is 
secured  in  good  season.  It  starts  very  slowly  in  spring,  is  a  long 
time  in  coming  into  flower,  and  after  cutting  t':e  second  growth 
is  slow,  feeble,  and  of  little  consequence,  seldom  large  enough 
to  cut  a  second  time  or  to  afford  much  pasture.  If  cut  early 
the  tuber  at  the  base  of  the  stalk  does  not  become  sufficiently 


PHLEUM  PRATENSE,   L.,   TIMOTHY.  105 

matured  to  keep  the  plant  alive  and  healthy.  If  cut  close,  the 
tuber  is  cut  off,  and  the  plants  suffer  and  become  feeble,  and 
perhaps  perish. 

It  is  hardly  suited  for  pasture  at  any  time,  unless  it  is  kept 
quite  large.  Horses,  sheep,  and  especially  hogs,  must  not  be 
allowed  to  eat  it  close  to  the  ground.  In  England  it  stands  pas- 
turing in  spring  without  much  injury  to  the  hay  crop.  Besides 
these  objections,  Timothy  is  likely  to  be  short  lived ;  the  tubers 
are  easily  trodden  out  by  cattle,  killed  by  drought  or  frost,  or 
eaten  by  mice  or  gophers.  It  sometimes  rusts  badly.  It  is  not 
hard  to  kill  when  cultivating  for  another  crop ;  it  starts  quite 
readily  from  the  seed,  and  is  Avell  suited  for  one  good  crop  of 
hay  in  a  season,  but  is  not  well  adapted  for  pasture.  It  is  not 
as  well  liked  in  Kansas  and  vicinity  and  in  the  south  as  it  is  at 
the  northeast. 

Timothy  is  one  of  the  five  grasses  in  the  list  recommended  by 
Mr.  De  Laune  for  permanent  pasture  and  meadow  in  England. 
For  Kansas,  hear  what  Professor  Shelton  says : 
"  Of  this  favorite  eastern  sort,  we  shall  say  but  little,  believ- 
ing that  over  a  large  portion  of  the   State  it  is  of  little  value. 
We  have  obtained  good  yields  upon  the  college  farm,  and  have 
seen  good  crops  of  Timothy  grown  west  of  this  point.     Still  it 
suffers  much  from  drought,  and  from  the  attacks  of  chinch-bugs, 
and  it  rarel -;  suvives  the  ravages  of  the  grasshoppers." 
For  Nebraska,  read  from  a  lecture  by  Dr.  Bessey: 
"  My  inquiries  were  very  generally  answered,   and  in  a  most 
satisfactory   manner.      They   all    indicate  that   throughout  the 
greater  portion  of  the  eastern  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  State, 
Timothy  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  grass  for  farm  use.     It  is 
invariably  doing  well,  and  in  many  instances  producing  crops  of 
hay  far  beyond  the  most  sanguine  expectations   of  those  who 
sowed  it.     It  is  of  course  not  to  be  expected  that  it  will  succeed, 
as  we  pass  far  into  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  State." 


103  PHLEUM   PRATENSE,    L.,    TIMOTHY. 

From  Howard's  Manual  we  learn  that:  "At  the  south  it  does 
not  thrive  on  upland." 

Major  H.  E.  Alvord,  of  New  York,  in  Rural  New  Yorker, 
reports  as  follows : 

"  Timothy  is  not  a  favorite  of  mine.  Its  hold  upon  the  land 
is  too  slight,  and,  as  a  rule,  it  falls  off  in  yield  too  fast  after  the 
first  crop.  My  preference  is  to  treat  it  like  a  grain  crop — sow 
alone  on  well  prepared  land,  in  August,  a  half  bushel  of  seed  to 
the  acre.  After  cutting  the  first  crop  turn  over  at  once,  manure 
and  re-seed ;  or  cut  once,  top-dre§s  well,  cut  a  rowen  crop,  then 
one  crop  the  second  year,  plow  and  re-seed.  I  know  of  no  suit- 
able mixture  for  Timothy,  if  for  hay,  and  do  not  consider  it  as 
desirable  as  a  large  part  of  any  mixture  for  pasture." 

Waldo  F.  Brown,  of  Ohio,  writes  in  these  words : 

"  I  think  that  land  seeded  to  Timothy  and  with  three  or  four 
pounds  of  Mammoth  Clover  seed  sown  to  the  acre,  will  produce 
one-half  more  hay  than  Timothy  alone,  and  the  clover  cures 
beautifully  with  the  Timothy. 

"  In  sowing  Timothy  for  hay,  I  use  a  bushel  of  seed  to  three 
acres,  and  think  the  quality  of  the  hay  much  better  than  when 
sown  thin.  There  are  many  farmers  of  my  acquaintance  who 
sow  a  bushel  to  ten  acres,  and  then  allow  it  to  stand  till  dead 
ripe  before  cutting." 

With  reference  to  saving  the  seed  of  Timothy,  the  following 
was  written  for  The  Prairie  Farmer  by  Hon.  Samuel  Dysart : 

"It  is  very  difficult  to  fix  any  specified  time  for  harvesting 
this  crop,  because  a  change  in  the  weather  may  make  a  great 
difference  in  the  ripeness  in  a  single  day.  When  the  amount  to 
be  harvested  is  not  large,  a  better  yield  of  seed  will  be  had  by 
letting  it  stand  until  all  the  heads  are  ripe,  and  a  few  of  the  early 
ones  shelled  off.  But  in  doing  this  there  is  much  risk.  A  windy 
day  may  thresh  half  the  crop.  A  shower  of  rain,  followed  by  a 
warm  sun,  will  change  the  color  of  a  field  in  a  few  hours.  Of 


DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA,   L.,  ORCHARD  GRASS  107 

late  years  I  have  harvested  from  75  to  100  acres  of  this  crop 
annually.  I  make  it  a  rule  to  start  the  harvester  into  it  when 
the  early  heads  begin  to  shell  at  the  tips.  The  straw  of  most  of 
it  is  then  quite  green,  and  if  carefully  put  up,  makes  fair  feed 
for  stock  after  threshing.  If  cut  before  fully  ripe,  much  care 
must  be  taken  in  shocking,  or  there  will  be  a  great  loss  of  seed  in 
threshing,  for  this  reason :  When  Timothy  is  ripe,  the  cell  which 
holds  the  seed  opens.  If  cut  too  green  and  the  bundles  are  left 
exposed  to  the  sun,  the  straw  dries  like  hay,  these  small  cells  do 
not  open,  and  no  machine  can  knock  the  seed  out  of  them.  If 
cut  before  fully  ripe  this  difficulty  may  be  largely  overcome  by 
putting  in  round  shocks  as  soon  as  cut,  packing  the  bundles  close 
together  to  exclude  the  air.  In  this  condition  the  natural  pro- 
cess of  ripening  will  go  on ;  but  if  set  up  two  and  two,  as  many 
set  the  bundles,  it  will  dry  and  stop  at  the  same  stage  as  when 
cut.  A  good  crop  of  Timothy  should  give  eight  bushels  to  the 
acre.  I  have  had  more,  and  also  less.  As  a  farm  crop  there  is 
more  uncertainty  in  saving  it  than  others  grains.  It  must  stand 
in  the  shock  at  least  two  weeks  to  be -dry  enough  for  threshing. 
During  that  time,  if  heavy  rains  and  high  winds  occur,  there  will 
be  considerable  waste  in  the  shock.  The  less  the  bundles  are 
handled  after  drying,  the  less  waste.  Hence  I  thresh  it  directly 
from  the  shock.  All  separators  are  now  made  with  sieves  for 
cleaning  this  crop." 

DACTYLIS,    L. 

Spikelets  several-flowered,  laterally  compressed,  nearly  sessile, 
crowded  in  dense  one-sided  fascicles,  at  the  end  of  the  branches, 
forming  a  one-sided  panicle.  Flowers  all  perfect,  or  the  upper- 
most one  etaminate.  Empty  glumes  unequal,  membranous, 
keeled,  the  upper  one  larger,  3-nerved.  The  floral  glume 
larger  than  the  empty  glumes,  cartilaginous,  keeled,  5-nerved; 
awn  short,  scabrid,  Palea  2-fid,  nerves  ciliate.  Lodicules  2, 


108  DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA  L.,  ORCHARD  GRASS. 


FIG.  63. 


DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA,   L.,   ORCHARD  GRASS.  109 

acutely  toothed.  Stamens  3.  Styles  distinct,  stigmas  feathery. 
Caryopsis  compressed,  loosely  inclosed  in  the  floral  glume,  and 
palea  free.  A  perennial  grass  with  broad  leaves.  One  species, 
found  in  cold  and  temperate  regions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa. 

D.  glomerata,  L.  Orchard  Grass,  Cock's-Foot. — Leaves 
long,  keeled,  conduplicate  when  dry,  culms  stout,  rough,  2-5 
feet.  Ligule  long,  panicle  2-6  inches,  often  tinged  with  violet 
spikelets  3-5-fld.,  |in.  long. 

For  the  past  fifteen  years  or  more  the  writer  has  been  accumu- 
lating notes  and  making  observations  and  experiments  in  refer- 
ence to  our  most  noted  grasses,  and  concerning  none  of  the  true 
grasses  has  there  been  more  said  or  written  or  more  inquiries 
made  than  about  the  one  above  named.  Like  every  question 
capable  of  dispute,  this  one  has  two  sides,  and  shrewd  men  of 
the  same  neighborhood  often  differ  very  much  in  their  estimation 
of  orchard  grass. 

The  grass  is  perennial,  lasting  for  many  }rears,  two  to  three,  or 
even  five  feet  or  more  in  height,  rather  large,  coarse,  rough,  of 
a  light  green  color,  and  grows  in  dense  tufts  unless  crowded  by 
thick  seeding.  The  lower  leaves  are  sometimes  two  feet  or  more 
in  length.  The  clustered  spikelets  make  dense  masses  on  the 
small  spreading  panicle ;  the  flowers  appear  with  those  of  early 
red  clover. 

It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  is  also  now  found  in  North  Africa, 
India,  and  North  America,  and  perhaps  in  other  countries.  Al- 
though it  came  to  this  country  from  Europe,  it  did  not  attract 
much  attention  in  England  until  sent  back  there  in  1764  from 
"Virginia. 

So  far  as  quality  is  concerned,  if  cut  in  season  or  pastured 
when  young  it  stands  well  the  test  of  cattle  and  the  chemist. 

FIG.  63.— Dactylis  glomerata,  L.  (Orchard  grass);  I,  entire  plant:  2  and  4,  spikelets; 
3 and  5,  florets;  6,  young  pistil ;  7,  a  lodicule.— (Spikelets  by  Scribner.) 


110  DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA,   L.,   ORCHARD  GRASS. 

It  is  very  nutritious,  the  seeds  start  quickly  and  make  a  vigorous 
growth,  and  if  the  grass  is  not  a  very  valuable  one,  it  is  certainly 
not  for  the  lack  of  good  testimonials. 

The  stems  are  not  very  abundant  when  compared  with  the 
leaves,  hence  the  plant  is  more  suitable  for  pasture  than  for 
meadow. 

James  Hunter,  of  England,  considers:  "For  permanent  pas- 
ture for  alternate  husbandry,  or  for  hay,  there  is  no  more  valu- 
able grass,  and  its  liberal  use  for  all  these*  purposes  is  strongly 
recommended. " 

Mr.  De  Launa  estimates  it  as  "By  far  the  most  valuable  of  all 
grasses  because  it  grows  in  all  soils;  it  produces  the  greatest 
amount  of  keep ;  it  is  the  must  nutritious  grass,  and  seems  to  grow 
faster  and  stronger  in  extremes  of  weather,  either  wet  or  dry,  than 
any  other  grass.*'  This  is  one  of  the  five  which  he  recommends 
for  permanent  grass  lands. 

According  to  Baron  J.  B.  Lawes,  "  It  is  very  abundant  and 
productive  on  good  soils  and  is  much  improved  by  cultivation. 
It  is  really  prominent  only  with  a  liberal  supply  of  ammonia, 
associated  with  a  correspondingly  liberal  supply  of  mineral  con- 
stituents. It  is  a  formidable  opponent  to  other  grasses,  where  it 
has  once  got  possession.*" 

The  following  from  Alexander  Hyde  of  Massachusetts,  is  ex- 
cellent and  to  the  purpose.  "  We  have  found  it  one  of  the  most 
luxuriant  and  nutritious,  both  for  grazing  and  for  hay.  •  It  never 
says  die.  It  is  the  first  to  furnish  a  bite  for  the  cattle  in  spring, 
is  little  affected  by  the  droughts  of  July  and  August,  and  con- 
tinues growing  until  the  severe  cold  of  November  locks  up  the 
sources  of  nourishment.  "When  cut  or  grazed  it  starts  up  with 
the  vigor  of  the  fabled  hydra.  We  advise  no  man  to  sow  it  on 
his  lawn,  for  it  would  need  cutting  every  day  before  break- 
fast. If  cut  while  in  blossom,  both  cattle  and  horses  are  exceed- 
ingly fond  of  the  hay,  and  do  well  on  it.  If  left  to  stand  till  the 


DAOTYLTS  GLOMERATA,   L.,    ORCHARD  GRASS.  Ill 

seeds  are  matured,  it  becomes  more  tough  and  woody  than  even 
Timothy,  and  cattle  Avill  need  to  have  their  teeth  sharpened  to 
eat  it  in  this  stage  of  its  growth. 

"  Orchard  grass  loves  a  deep,  rich,  moist  soil,  and  in  such  a 
soil  no  other  grass  yields  such  an  abundant  harvest.  Why  it  is 
so  much  neglected  among  us  we  cannot  divine,  unless  it  is  the 
fashion  of  sowing  Timothy  and  clover,  and  fashion  is  as  much  a, 
tyrant  among  farmers  as  among  the  ladies,  though  showing  his 
power  in  a  different  mode." 

A.  W.  Cheever,  a  most  successful  farmer  and  editor  of  Massa- 
chusetts writes:  "I  have  now  cultivated  this  grass  some  ten 
or  twelve  years,  and  feel  that  I  can  speak  of  it  understandingly. 
It  is  a  grass  that  must  be  understood  to  be  appreciated.  Grown 
on  poor,  dry  land,  by  a  poor,  lazy  farmer,  who  is  always  behind 
hand  with  his  work,  it  will  not  give  satisfaction ;  but  on  rich, 
moist  land,  capable  of  cutting  .two  or  three  crops  in  a  season, 
sown  thickly  with  a  mixture  of  clover  and  June  grass,  or  other 
kinds  ripening  at  or  about  the  same  time,  and  under  the  man- 
agement of  a  wide-awake  farmer,  I  can  confidently  pronounce  it 
the  most  valuable  grass  known  in  this  country  at  the  present 
time.  It  may  be  cut  two  or  three  times  a  year,  producing  large 
crops  of  the  very  best  of  fodder,  just  as  long  as  the  fertility  of  the 
land  can  be  maintained  bv  top  dressing.  It  is  the  earliest  grass 
in  the  spring  and  the  latest  in  fall." 

E.  H.  Libby,  in  1883,  wrote  me  that  "  A  little  while  ago  the 
New  England  Homestead  contained  numerous  letters  from  farm- 
ers week  after  week,  speaking  in  the  highest  terms  of  this  grass." 

T.  D.  Curtis,  of  New  York,  says,  Orchard  grass  is  a  most 
excellent  hay  plant,  but  it  requires  a  rich  soil.  A  well  sodded 
pasture  of  this  grass  is  a  thing  to  admire  as  well  as  for  use  and 
profit. 

"Wm.  Crozier,  of  New  York,  speaks  as  follows : 

"Heretofore  the  base  grass  in  all  the  Northern  States  has  been 


112  DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA,    L.,   ORCHARD  GRASS. 

Timothy ;  but  experiments  that  have  been  carried  on  for  a  period 
of  twenty  years  have  led  me  to  believe  that  orchard  grass  is 
much  better  fitted  to  be  the  leading  kind  in  mixtures,  whether 
for  pasture  or  for  hay,  or  used  alone  or  otherwise ;  and  I  place 
it  far  in  advance  not  only  of  Timothy,  but  of  any  other  grass  we 
have  thus  far  in  cultivation.  It  is  very  early.  The  advantage  of 
this  earliness  is  not  only  that  it  gives  three  weeks  longer  for  the 
aftermath  to  grow,  but  another  reason,  far  more  important  is, 
that  at  this  date  the  white  ox-eye  daisy  ( Chrysanthemum  leucan- 
themum,}  and  other  troublesome  weeds  are  not  yet  in  a  condition 
to  seed,  so  that  should  any  of  them  happen  to  be  in  the  fields, 
they  are  destroyed  by  being  cut  before  they  have  ripened  their 
seeds." 

The  following  i.s  by  Prof.  I.  P.  Roberts,  of  New  York: 
"Orchard  grass  is  hardy  with  us,  and  gives  an  abundant  yield  of 
good  hay,  if  cut  early  and  carefully  cured.  Where  we  have  used 
it  as  the  principal  grass  in  pastures,  it  becomes  patchy;  that  is, 
some  portions  of  the  field  the  cattle  will  eat  close,  while  other 
portions,  where  the  grass  gets  a  little  start,  will  go  to  seed,  after 
which  all  growth  ceases  till  the  next  season.  I  have  frequently 
mowed  the  pastures  as  the  grass  was  heading  out;  sometimes  the 
cut  grass  was  left  on  the  field,  sometimes  cured  for  hay.  It  grows 
in  hummocks  to  such  an  extent  that  evaporation  from  the  soil 
in  dry  weather  goes  on  so  rapidly  that  the  other  grasses  perish 
for  want  of  moisture,  and  then,  too,  orchard  grass  is  always 
'dry'  and  takes  the  lion's  share  of  the  moisture.  Except  for 
timber  lots,  and  for  mixing  with  a  variety  of  grasses  for  perma- 
nent pastures,  its  value  is  not  great  with  us/* 

A  writer  in  the  Connecticut  Report  of  the  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture for  1868,  remarks :  "  Orchard  grass  does  well  on  dry  land, 
giving  a  large  yield  of  coarse,  black  looking  hay,  very  sweet  and 
palatable  to  cattle,  but  it  must  be  cut  early,  suffering  more  from 
standing  too  long  than  any  other  grass  with  which  I  am  familiar. 


DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA,   L.,   ORCHARD  GRASS.  113 

On  moist  places  it  runs  to  tufts.  No  grass  does  better  in  the 
shade  than  this,  and  none  gives  so  quick  a  second  growth,  or  so 
strong  aftermath.  With  me  it  ripens  precisely  with  red  clover, 
and  I  always  sow  them  together.  Clover  and  orchard  grass  I 
sow  together  in  the  spring,  using  12  pounds  of  clover  and  two 
bushels  of  orchard  grass  per  acre." 

L.  F.  Allen,  of  Buffalo,  New  York,  approves  of  a  favorable 
article  in  the  New  York  Tribune,  saying:  "I  have  had  it  in 
continuous  mowing  and  pasturage  for  upwards  of  forty  years 
without  disturbing  it.  As  a  market  hay,  I  admit  that  Timothy  is 
more  salable,  because  town's  people  do  not  know  the  value  of  the 
orchard  grass,  which  is  just  as  good  for  any  kind  of  animal." 

In  the  Country  Gentleman  for  1883,  the  same  man  of  wide 
experience  and  observation,  remarks:  "  Why  it  is  that  farmers 
are  so  dull  in  the  use  of  orchard  grass,  passes  my  comprehension, 
when,  on  a  single  trial  of  its  virtues,  mixed  with  red  clover  when 
sown,  equal  in  proportion  for  a  hay  crop,  it  is  better  for  any  class 
of  stock  than  Timothy." 

The  late  Hon.  George  Geddes,  of  New  York,  said:  "It  is  a 
very  valuable  grass,  but  unless  thickly  sown  it  is  inclined  to  grow 
in  tussocks  or  bunches." 

T.  A.  Cole,  Madison  Co.,  New  York,  in  New  York  Tribune, 
remarks : 

"After  twenty  years  of  experience,  I  have  settled  down  upon 
orchard  grass  as  possessing  greater  merits  than  any  other,  for 
both  pasture  and  meadow,  for  fattening  animals  or  for  dairy 
stock.  When  cut  for  hay,  just  before  its  bloom,  and  cured  with 
as  little  sun  as  possible,  it  will  make  more  milk  than  any  other 
variety  known  to  me ;  if  left  to  ripen  it  is  worthless.  When 
sown  thick  enough  it  does  not  grow  in  tussocks  and  will  crowd 
out  white  daisies,  and  in  five  or  six  years  I  have  seen  it  crowd 
out  quack-grass.  Hundreds  of  farmers  in  this  region  are  raising 
it,  and  in  every  instance  consider  it  superior  as  a  forage  plant/' 

15 


114  DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA,   L.,   ORCHARD  GRASS. 

The  following  is  from  the  pen  of  Major  H.  E.  Alvord,  of  New 
York,  and  was  written  for  the  Rural  New  Yorker: 

"Orchard  grass  is  a  variety  which  has  no  superior  for  pasture  or 
hay,  and  it  matures  so  early  that  the  crop  may  be  easily  got  out 
of  the  way  before  Timothy  or  red  top  is  fit  to  cut.  But  orchard 
grass  must  have  a  good  strong  soil,  and  can  be  made  most  profit- 
able by  keeping  land  thus  seeded  in  sod  for  a  series  of  years.  If 
cut  twice  a  year  or  three  times,  as  is  often  possible,  it  must  be 
liberally  top-dressed.  With  the  land  previously  in  good  con- 
dition and  a  well  prepared  seed-bed,  orchard  grass  is  very  satis- 
factory, grown  by  itself.  For  this  purpose,  I  would  sow  it  as  soon 
as  the  land  can  be  put  in  order  in  the  spring,  or  in  the  latter 
part  of  August,  using  at  least  two  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre, 
put  on  with  the  greatest  care,  as  it  is  a  dimcut  material  to  handle. 
In  1884,  orchard  grass  was  in  bloom  in  May,  at  Houghton  Farm, 
and  good  hay  was  made  the  first  week  in  June.  The  period  of 
cutting  as  to  maturity  of  plant,  should  be  regulated  according 
to  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  hay.  It  can  be  cut  so  as  to  make 
hay  as  fine  as  any  rowen  or  coarser  than  any  heavy  Timothy.  If  a 
mixture  is  desired  for  hay,  tall  meadow  oat-grass  and  clover  are 
the  best  for  maturing  with  the  orchard  grass.  Although  orchard 
grass  is  hardy,  furnishes  the  first  green  bite  in  the  spring,  and 
the  last  in  the  fall,  and  usually  provides  good  protection  with  its 
own  aftermath,  it  will  winter  kill  where  not  well  covered  with 
snow,  if  the  land  is  moist.  It  prefers  a  location  rather  high  and 
dry,  naturally  or  artificially  well  drained." 

Prof.  J.  K.  Page,  of  Virginia,  says :  "  It  does  well  and  yields 
one  and  a  half  to  two  tons  per  acre." 

W.  F.  Tallant,  of  the  same  State,  in  the  Country  Gentleman 
remarks :  "  It  will  grow  more  in  one  week  after  cutting  than 
blue  grass  will  in  a  month.  It  makes  a  larger  aftermath,  and 
makes  it  quicker  than  any  other  grass  I  know  of.  It  is  ready  to 
cut  before  harvest  and  after  planting.  Timothy  is  too  near 


DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA,   L.,   ORCHARD  GRASS.  115 

wheat  harvest,  so  that  it  is  often  left  until  that  is  over,  when  it 
is  entirely  too  ripe.  I  have  tried  it  on  rich  land  and  poor  land 
with  good  results." 

Orchard  grass  is  much  raised  in  Kentucky,  where  it  has  been 
grown  since  1817. 

Eichard  Waters,  of  Oldham  county,  in  The  Tribune,  says: 
"  Orchard  grass  grows  best  in  good,  strong  loam,  reasonably  dry, 
not  on  sandy  land,  nor  in  wet  land.  It  will  graze  more  stock  to 
the  acre,  and  can  be  grazed  ten  days  earlier  in  the  spring  than 
any  other  grass.  It  makes  good  winter  pasture,  and  during  one 
recent  winter  I  kept  800  ewes  on  this  grass  all  winter  without 
any  other  feed." 

On  the  same  subject,  we  learn  from  Dr.  J.  B.  Killebrew,  of 
Tennessee:  "It  likes  a  soil  moderately  dry,  porous,  fertile,  and 
inclined  to  be  sandy.  It  withstands  hot,  dry  weather  better  than 
any  other  valuable  grass." 

A  prominent  writer  in  The  Rural  World,  of  Missouri,  states : 

"  When  suitably  located  and  properly  grown,  it  is  one  of  the 
best  of  our  cultivated  grasses,  but  when  not  so  located  and  grown, 
it  is  of  indifferent  value.  Sow  two  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre, 
if  sown  alone." 

Prof.  D.  L.  Phares,  of  Mississippi,  prefers  to  sow  this  grass 
in  the  spring  without  a  grain  crop,  and  on  well  prepared  land. 
It  thrives  well  without  renewal  on  the  same  ground  for  thirty  or 
forty  years,  and  is  easily  exterminated  when  the  land  is  desired 
for  other  crops.  The  growth  in  clumps  may  be  obviated  by 
thick  seeding. 

"Altogether  and  from  every  standpoint,  I  am  compelled  to  say 
still,  as  I  did  many  years  ago,  that  I  prefer  orchard  to  any  other 
grass.  I  could  fill  volumes  with  testimonials  more  strongly  ex- 
pressed than  my  own  in  favor  of  this  grass  over  all  others. 

"It  produces  seed  freely,  and  they  germinate  with  certainty,  a 
bushel  weighing  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds." 


116  DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA,   L.,    ORCHARD  GRASS. 

In  Howard's  Manual  of  Grasses,  we  read:  "  This  valuable 
grass  ranks  next  in  importance  tp  the  tall  meadow-oat-grass  for 
hay  and  winter  pasture.  The  second  growth  after  cutting  should 
be  reserved  for  winter  grazing.  Where  hay  is  an  object,  meadow- 
oat  and  orchard  grass  should  be  sowed  with  red  clover  and  white, 
as  each  of  the  four  blossoms  at  the  same  time  and  is  simultane- 
ously ready  for  the  scythe.  The  cultivation  of  these  two  grasses 
at  the  South  cannot  be  too  strongly  recommended  on  soils  adapted 
to  them." 

Prof.  S.  A.  Knapp,  of  Iowa,  after  looking  the  ground  all  over, 
concludes  that  orchard  grass  is  valuable  for  early  and  summer 
use,  but  not  superior  for  late  fall  pasture  upon  the  open  prairie. 

Prof.  G.  E.  Morrow,  of  Illinois,  in  Rural  New  Yorker,  says : 

"  Both  for  pasture  and  for  hay,  I  think  we  have  underrated 
the  value  of  orchard  grass,  if  sown  thickly  and  not  allowed  to 
become  harsh  and  woody  by  standing  too  long." 

Those  living  on  the  dry  prairies  will  be  interested  in  the  fol- 
lowing from  Professor  Shelton,  of  Kansas: 

"  Two  years  ago,  in  giving  our  experience  with  this  grass,  we 
stated  that  it  had  proved  to  be  '  one  of  the  very  best  and  safest 
of  all  the  pasture  grasses  that  we  have  tried.'  It  has  proved 
with  us  but  an  indifferent  hay  plant,  yielding  moderately  upon 
ordinary  soils ;  and  the  hay,  when  well  secured,  is  not  relished  by 
our  stock.  In  our  experience  the  hay  is  hardly  equal  to  that  cut 
from  the  prairie.  Our  experience  is  totally  against  this  grass  as 
a  hay  plant ;  but,  in  grazing,  its  valuable  qualities  soon  become 
apparent  to  the  farmer.  We  feel  confident  that  it  will  yield  fully 
twice  the  feed  that  can  be  obtained  from  the  same  area  of  blue 
grass  or  Timothy,  and  in  nutritive  qualities  is  certainly  greatly 
superior  to  blue  grass.  Orchard  grass  is  one  of  the  earliest  grasses 
to  start  in  the  spring,  and  the  last  to  succumb  to  the  frost  in  the  fall. 
By  giving  it  a  good  start  in  the  fall,  it  will  furnish  good  pasture  far 
into  the  winter.  It  is  consumed  with  great  relish  by  stock  of  all 


DACTTLIS  GLOMERATA,   L.,   ORCHAED  GRASS.  117 

kinds,  especially  if  the  grass  is  cropped  short.  It  seems  to  do 
equally  well  upon  heavy  clay  and  sandy  soil ;  and  any  rich  and 
well  drained  soil  seems  suited  to  it.  It  germinates  about  as 
easily  as  oats ;  and,  with  good  seed,  no  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  getting  a  '  stand '  that  will  endure  moderate  cropping  the  first 
fall  after  seeding.  As  might  be  inferred  from  its  common  name, 
it  does  better  when  moderately  shaded,  and  is  admirably  suited 
to  orchard  culture ;  yet  there  are  few  grasses  that  will  so  well 
endure  the  prolonged  sunshine  of  our 'dry  seasons.  For  these 
reasons  we  feel  safe  in  recommending  this  grass  to  the  farmers 
of  central  Kansas  for  the  purposes  of  pasture. 

"Clover  has  always  thrived  with  orchard  grass,  besides  furnish- 
ing to  animals  that  variety  of  food  so  agreeable  to  the  taste.  We 
have  found  that  orchard  grass  is  relished  even  by  swine,  and 
therefore  it  makes  excellent  'hog  pastures.'  In  our  experience, 
too,  no  amount  of  tramping  or  close  grazing  at  any  season  has 
been  able  to  injure  a  well-rooted  sod. 

"  Orchard  grass  will  endure  late  seeding  better,  perhaps,  than 
any  other  sort ;  but  this  operation  ought  not  to  be  delayed  much 
beyond  the  middle  of  April." 

Still  later  on  he  concludes  as  follows: 

"  Of  all  the  large  number  of  grasses  that  have  been  tested  at 
the  College  Farm  during  the  past  twelve  years,  this  has  proved 
the  most  generally  useful,  because:  1,  a  'stand'  is  easily  and 
quickly  obtained ;  2,  it  yields  wonderfully  of  pasturage  and  hay 
if  the  land  is  good — indeed  orchard  grass  is  such  a  gross  feeder 
that  it  is  not  worth  a  trial  upon  very  poor  land ;  3,  it  does  not 
winter-kill,  does  not  'head  out,'  is  not  injured  by  too  close  crop- 
ping, and  will  survive  an  uninterrupted  four  months'  drought. 
It  winter-killed  badly  in  1885-6." 

Hear  a  few  good  words  from  Dr.  Bessey . 

"The  nutritive  value  of  orchard  grass,  as  determined  by 
chemical  analysis,  shows  it  to  rank  well  up  toward  the  high  value 


118  DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA,  L.,  ORCHARD  GRASS. 

of  blue  grass.  It  is  much  more  nutritious  than  Timothy,  and 
very  nearly  as  valuable  as  red-top.  It  is  shown  by  trial  to  grow 
well  in  many  parts  of  Nebraska,  and  is  considered  by  many  to  be 
one  of  our  best  grasses." 

Hon.  L.  N.  Bonham,  of  Ohio,  among  other  things  says :  "If  the 
land  is  not  too  strong,  orchard  grass  is  an  improvement  sown 
with  clover  intended  for  hay.  In  strong,  black  land,  however, 
I  have  found  the  culm  incased  by  the  several  folds  of  the  leaves, 
BO  thick  and  sappy  that  it  does  not  cure  before  the  leaves  are  so 
dry  as  to  crumble  into  powder.  On  poorer  land  I  prefer  orchard 
grass  with  clover,  Where  pasture  is  desired,  orchard  grass  adds 
greatly  to  the  value  of  the  clover  field.  It  furnishes  a  variety, 
recovers  quickly  after  mowing  or  being  eaten  down,  and  comes 
early.  It  is  not  appreciated,  and  is  neglected  by  farmers 
because  the  seed  is  more  difficult  to  sow  and  is  more  expensive 
than  clover  or  Timothy  per  acre.  Its  chief  value  is  for  pasture." 

As  we  might  expect  where  a  grass  has  been  so  long  in  cultiva- 
tion, it  varies  much  in  vigor  and  size.  In  England  some  attention 
has  been  given  to  selecting  vigorous  varieties.  Like  Indian  corn, 
it  is  well  to  select  seeds  from  large,  thrifty,  well  grown  plants. 

B.  A.  R.,  of  Bowling  Green,  Kentucky,  thus  describes  the 
mode  of  saving  seeds  of  orchard  grass : 

"  About  the  time  the  seeds  are  ripe,  and  before  they  commence 
to  shatter,  take  a  reaper  and  set  the  sickle  about  one  foot  above 
the  ground,  so  as  to  be  above  the  leaves  or  blades,  and  cut,  bind 
and  shock  as  wheat,  only  make  the  bundles  and  shocks  smaller. 
Leave  the  shocks  uncapped  for  three  or  four  weeks,  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  sun  and  rain.  This  is  necessary  to  make  it 
thresh  clean  from  the  head.  At  the  end  of  three  or  four  weeks, 
as  above  stated,  place  a  canvass  in  the  bottom  of  the  bed  or  frame 
in  which  it  is  to  be  hauled  (to  avoid  waste,  as  it  shatters  very 
badly  at  this  time),  and  haul  to  the  place  of  threshing.  If  not 
ready  to  thresh  right  away,  you  must  cover  it  with  something, 


DACTYLIS  GLOMERATA,   L.,    ORCHARD  GRASS.  119 

stack  it,  or  put  in  barn,  as  too  much  dampness  will  prove  injurious 
to  the  seed  at  this  time.  Remember  to  handle  over  a  canvass  as 
much  as  possible  whenever  you  move  it,  for  otherwise  the  loss 
will  be  considerable.  As  for  the  yield,  that  is  very  variable — all 
the  way  from  five  to  fifteen  bushels  per  acre,  according  to  the 
age  of  the  meadow  and  fertility  of  the  soil.  Orchard  grass 
increases  its  yield  every  year  from  the  second  to  the  sixth  or 
seventh  after  sowing.  But  even  at  this  seemingly  small  yield  it 
is  very  profitable,  as  the  labor  is  not  very  great  and  there  is  an 
abundance  of  good  hay  left  to  be  mowed  after  the  seed  are  saved. " 

Of  the  producers  or  of  country  merchants  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  the  seed  may  be  obtained  for  much  less  than  is  usually 
paid  to  the  seed  dealers  of  the  northern  States.  It  is  usually 
put  up  in  eight-bushel  sacks,  14  Ibs.  being  allowed  to  the  bushel. 

These  long  quotations  have  been  selected  from  wide  awake, 
observing  men  living  in  remote  parts  of  our  great  country.  I 
have  neglected  to  quote  much  from  those  who  speak  against  it, 
believing  that  they  do  not  understand  the  grass  and  consequently 
make  mistakes  in  its  management. 

As  a  rule  it  blossoms  but  once  a  year,  and  then  about  a  month 
ahead  of  Timothy  and  red  top. 

It  is  often  mentioned  as  very  suitable  for  growing  in  the  shade, 
but  June  grass  does  as  well,  comparatively.  It  will  not  spread 
and  make  a  fine,  handsome  turf. 

Many  cut  it  too  late,  when  the  hay  will  be  of  poor  quality. 

A  farmer  should  not  have  too  much  of  it  for  meadow,  because 
it  all  comes  on  at  once,  and  then  it  should  be  cut ;  the  weather 
often  controls  the  time  of  cutting.  If  rainy  when  the  grass  is 
in  flower  we  must  wait  often  a  week  or  more.  In  such  cases  most 
grasses  endure  the  delay  better  than  orchard  grass. 

Some  object  to  its  use  as  the  seed  costs  too  much,  from  one  to 
two  dollars  a  bushel,  making  the  seed  for  an  acre  cost  from  two 
to  five  dollars.  Others  sow  on  stiff,  poor  soil,  where  it  makes  a 
feeble  growth. 


AERHENATHERUM,  TALL  OAT-GRASS.         m  121 

AJRRHENATHERUM,      BEAUV. 

Spikelets  subterete,  2-flowered,  panicled  ;  rachilla  jointed 
above  the  empty  glumes,  extending  above  the  upper  flower ;  the 
lower  flower  staminate,  the  upper  perfect  or  pistillate.  Empty 
glumes  persistent,  membranous,  unequal,  mucronate;  the  floral 
glumes  firm,  5-7-ner-ved,  the  lower  one  bearing  a  long,  bent 
awn  below  the  middle,  the  upper  one  bristle-pointed  near  the  tip 
or  awnless,  or  rarely  bearing  a  stout,  bent  awn.  Palea  narrow, 
hyaline,  2-nerved.  Lodicules  2-fid.  Stamens  3.  Styles  short, 
distinct,  stigmas  feathery.  Caryopsis  ovoid,  free.  Perennials, 
leaves  flat  or  convolute  when  dry.  Three  species,  found  in 
Europe,  northern  Africa,  and  western  Asia. 

A.  avenaceum,  Beauv.  Tall  Oat-Grass,  False  Oat-Grass, 
French  Rye-Grass,  Evergreen  Grass  [at  the  south]. — (Avena 
elatior,  L.)  Panicle  narrow,  long,  nodding.  Spikelets  ^-in., 
floral  glume,  with  bristly  hairs  at  the  base,  palea  shining ;  intro- 
duced. 

Within  the  past  few  years  this  grass  has  become  somewhat 
prominent,  and  has  won  many  notes  of  praise  from  the  farmers, 
especially  from  those  living  in  the  south  and  west.  It  has  long 
been  grown  in  some  portions  of  Virginia. 

Tall  oat-grass  is  a  hardy  perennial,  growing  from  three  to  six 
feet  high  and  bearing  a  loose  panicle  somewhat  resembling  one  of 
the  common  oats,  only  more  slender  in  every  way.  It  is  common 
in  Europe  and  western  Asia,  and  has  some  peculiarities  which 
ought  to  be  well  understood  by  those  attempting  to  grow  it  for 
meadow  or  pasture. 

In  place  of  much  experience  by  our  best  farmers,  the  writer 
will  quote  the  somewhat  conflicting  views  of  several  eminent 
authorities.  » 

Dr.  Lindley,  of  England,  said :     "  It  is  bitter  and  ungrateful 


Fig.  (A.-ArrlwMtherum  awnaceum,  Beauv.  (Tall  Oat-Grass) :  a,  plant;  c,  spikelet 
nearly  closed;  b,  rather  more  enlarged  and  the  outer  glumes  removed. — (Details  by 
Scribner.) 

16 


132  ARRHENATHERUM,   TALL  OAT-GRASS. 

to  animals,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  this  grass  should  be 
regarded  as  fit  for  cultivation.  The  variety  bulbosum  is  apt  to 
become  a  troublesome  weed,  difficult  to  extirpate." 

William  Gorrie,  of  England,  says :  "  It  is  most  extensively  cul- 
tivated on  the  continent ;  speedily  attains  to  maturity  from  seed, 
yields  continuously  from  early  spring  till  winter  frosts  a  large 
bulk  of  produce,  yet  it  contains  a  small  proportion  of  nutriment 
and  possesses  a  very  disagreeable,  bitter  taste,  which  causes  it  to 
be  avoided  by  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  It  is  very  subject  to 
rust  and  black  smut.  It  abounds  chiefly  on  light,  dry,  arable 
soils.  Its  cultivation  under  any  circumstances  would  not  fail  to 
create  suspicions  of  lunacy  against  the  grower.  Its  extirpation 
alone  demands  attention." 

Baron  J.  B.  Lawes  says:  "  The  endowments  favorable  to  this 
grass  are  its  hardiness,  its  comparative  indifference  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil,  its  particularly  ample  root  growth,  both  deep 
and  superficial,  its  strong,  tufted  habit,  and  its  early  flowering 
tendency.  It  yields  a  considerable  quantity  of  foliage  on  the 
culms,  which  affords  a  good  deal  of  leafy  feed  in  the  spring.  It 
produces  rapidly  after  cutting ;  its  taste  is  bitter,  but  it  is  not 
disliked  by  cattle.  It  does  not  grow  abundantly  except  upon 
poor  soils,  and  is,  upon  the  whole,  of  somewhat  questionable 
value.  It  is  much  grown  in  France." 

The  late  Professor  James  Buckman,  also  of  England,  a  good 
botanist  who  had  given  much  study  to  the  grasses,  said :  "  This 
is  exceedingly  bitter,  uniformly  refused  by  cows  and  sheep  unless 
starved  to  it  by  want  of  something  better.  We  think  it  would  be 
better  to  discourage  its  growth.  We  have  two  forms,  one  of  which 
is  the  variety  bulbosum,  growing  in  sandy  lands.  In  this  the 
bulbs  become  enlarged  and  look  like  a  string  of  onions  on  a  small 
scale,  which  gives  it  the  name  of  'onion  couch.'  The  only  way 
to  get  rid  of  it  is  to  hand  pick  it  after  repeated  plowing  and 
harrowing." 


ARRHENATHERUM,  TALL  OAT-GRASS.  133 

Even  the  English  seedsmen,  who  recommend  the  use  of  many 
sorts,  the  value  of  which  is  questioned  by  farmers,  do  not  include 
tall  oat  grass  in  the  list  of  valuable  grasses. 

But  the  reader  doubtless  cares  less  about  what  the  English 
think  of  tall  oat  grass,  than  he  does  about  what  some  of  the  best 
American  farmers  think  of  it. 

Judge  Jesse  Buell,  of  Connecticut,  in  1823,  quotes  the  opinion 
of  Dr.  Muhlenburg  and  Mr.  Taylor,  of  Virginia,  who  place  this 
at  the  head  of  good  grasses.  It  possesses  the  advantages  of  early, 
late,  and  quick  growth,  for  which  the  orchard  grass  is  esteemed, 
and  is  well  calculated  for  a  pasture  grass.  Dickenson,  quoted  by 
Buell,  says:  "It  makes  good  hay,  but  is  most  beneficial  when 
retained  in  a  close  state  of  feeding."' 

Prof.  D.  L.  Phares,  of  Mississippi,  says:  "It  has  a  wonderful 
capacity  of  withstanding  the  severest  heats  and  droughts  of  sum- 
mer and  colds  of  winter.  It  admits  of  being  cut  twice  a  year,  yield- 
ing twice  as  much  hay  as  Timothy,  and  is  probably  the  best  winter 
grass  that  can  be  obtained.  To  make  good  hay  it  must  be  cut 
the  instant  it  blooms.  For  green  soiling  it  may  be  cut  four  or 
five  times,  with  favorable  seasons.  Along  the  more  southerly 
belt  it  may  be  sown  in  November  and  onward  till  the  middle  of 
December.  It  is  one  of  the  most  certain  grasses  to  have  a  good 
catch." 

The  late  Mr.  C.  W.  Howard  thought,  this  grass  deserved  to 
be  placed  at  the  head  of  winter  grasses  for  the  South.  It  does 
not  answer  well  on  moist  land.  Seed  sown  in  the  spring  will  pro- 
duce seed  in  the  fall. 

Prof.  E.  W.  Shelton,  of  Kansas,  says:  "This  grass  has  within 
a  few  years  been  extensively  sold  in  the  West  under  the  name  of 
'evergreen  grass.'  We  have  tried  it  for  a  number  of  years  upon  a 
considerable  scale.  No  grass  that  we  have  yet  tried  has,  during 
its  first  season,  made  such  a  vigorous  growth  as  meadow  oat-grass 
did  last  year.  In  this  respect  it  has  greatly  surpassed  our  old 


134  ARRHENATHERUM,   TALL  OAT-GRASS. 

favorite,  orchard  grass.  It  made  a  much  better  stand  than  did 
orchard  grass  growing  beside  it,  and  endured  the  severe  and  pro- 
tracted drought  of  the  latter  part  of  the  season  better,  retaining 
its  incense  green  throughout.  This  grass,  although  sown  late  in 
April,  gave  a  heavy  cuttinf  of  hay  in  July,  a  feat  that  we  have 
never  before  accomplished  with  any  other  sort.  It  makes  excel- 
lent pasturage  early  in  the  spring  and  late  in  the  fall,  but  as  a 
hay  plant,  and  for  general  pasturage,  it  is  greatly  inferior  in 
Kansas  to  orchard  grass." 

The  Students'  Farm  Journal,  of  Iowa  Agricultual  College, 
sums  up  its  merits  as  follows : 

"  It  vegetates  earlier  in  the  spring  than  any  grass  we  have  ever 
seen,  producing  pasture  for  cattle  by  April  15.  It  stood  five  feet 
ten  inches  May  1,  started  April  .5.  This  is  a  great  item  to  the 
farmer,  for  hay  and  corn  are  worth  something  in  April  and  so  is 
the  time  required  in  their  feeding.  It  grows  strong  and  even 
throughout  the  entire  year  and  very  late  in  the  fall.  It  is  best  for 
pasture  but  makes  coarse  hay,  but  of  fine  flavor  if  cut  early. 
It  will  blossom  twice  in  one  season  if  cut  early.  Its  flavor  and 
smell  are  good.  By  chemical  analysis  this  grass  contains  some 
more  flesh  or  muscle  forming  material  than  Timothy.  More  fiber 
and  less  fat.  But  chemical  analysis  is  not  the  most  important 
element  used  in  judging  of  a  plant's  value.  It  is  better  than 
Timothy  in  not  being  so  hard  on  the  soil,  and  produces  nearly 
twice  as  much  hay.  No  grass  in  the  college  experimental  grass 
garden  is  more  promising  than  this.  It  ripens  earlier  than 
Timothy  and  is  therefore  better  mixing  with  clover." 

Lieutenant  Governor  Sessions,  of  Ionia,  Michigan,  has  given 
this  grass  a  good  trial  and  reports :  "  In  a  very  dry  season  the 
newly  seeded  clover  and  Timothy  disappeared,  but  the  oat-grass 
sown  with  it  grew  well.  It  more  than  holds  its  own  with  clover 
and  Timothy.  It  is  rank  and  early  and  will  seed  twice  each 
season.  It  makes  good  pasture  and  good  hay,  and  is  very  pro- 


ARRHENATHERUM,  TALL  OAT-GRASS.  125 

lific.     I  want  a  permanent  grass,  so  I  have  not  tried  to  destroy 
it."  : 

The  writer  has  raised  this  grass  on  rather  light,  sandy  soil  at 
Lansing,  Michigan,  for  twelve  years  or  more,  has  seen  it  in  some 
other  localities  in  the  State,  and  thinks  he  can  tell  why  there  are 
such  conflicting  opinions  in  relation  to  its  value.  In  England 
the  climate  is  moist,  and  the  finer  succulent  grasses  thrive  well, 
while  tall  oat-grass  does  better  in  a  hotter,  dryer  climate.  He  has 
had  occasion  to  kill  several  plats  and  has  had  no  more  trouble 
with  it  than  in  killing  so  much  Timothy.  There  are  some  bulbs 
on  the  sort  raised  in  Michigan,  but  they  are  not  hard  to  kill. 
Like  orchard  grass,  it.  ripens  very  quickly  after  blooming,  and  to 
make  good  hay  there  must  be  no  delay  in  cutting.  As  it  blos- 
soms rather  early,  many  let  it  go  too  long  before  cutting,  when 
the  stems  become  woody  and  of  poor  quality.  Again,  bad  weather 
often  interferes  with  the  cutting  just  at  the  right  time,  and  poor 
hay  is  the  result.  A  man  doesn't  want  a  very  large  quantity  of 
this  grass  to  mow,  unless  he  is  prepared  to  cut  it  all  in  a  day  or 
two.  It  makes  a  fine  growth  the  first  season  after  sowing,  and  if 
sown  alone  will  cut  a  good  crop  of  hay. 

I  find  that  stock  eat  the  grass  well,  though  most  likely  they 
would  prefer  to  have  some  grass  not  so  bitter  for  a  part  of  the  time. 
The  seed  is  rather  light,  weighing  fourteen  pounds  to  the  bushel 
in  the  chaff.  About  two  bushels  to  the  acre,  are  usually  sown. 
Only  half  of  the  flowers  set  seed,  as  every  other  one  is  staminate. 
The  seed  is  rather  large,  starts  early,  and  soon  makes  a  vigorous 
plant.  This  fits  it  for  alternate  husbandry  and  for  dry  countries. 
In  saving  the  seed,  care  needs  to  be  used  to  cut  the  grass  just 
as  soon  as  the  top  of  the  panicle  is  ready.  ~Not  a  half  day  should 
go  by  or  seed  Avill  be  lost.  It  is  cut  high,  bound  in  small  bundles, 
shocked  till  well  cured,  when  it  is  drawn  to  the  threshing  floor 
on  a  wagon  supplied  with  a  canvas  to  save  the  shelling  seeds. 
It  yields  from  ten  to  twenty  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre. 


126  F.  ELATIOR,  L.  TALL   MEADOW   FESCUE. 

FESTUCA,    L.    FESCUE. 

Spikelets  3  or  more  flowered,  subterete,  in  a  compact  or 
slightly  spreading  panicle,  rachilla  jointed  above  the  empty 
glumes  and  between  the  flowers ;  flowers  perfect  or  rarely  stami- 
nate,  empty  glumes,  persistent,  unequal,  shorter  than  the  lowest 
floral  acute,  keeled,  the  outer  1-nerved,  the  inner  larger, 
usually  3-nerved.  Floral  glumes  narrow  with  3-5  obscure 
nerves,  acute,  mucronate  or  awned  at  or  near  the  tips.  Palea 
shorter,  2-nerved.  Lodicules  2,  notched.  Stamens  1-3.  Styles 
short,  terminal,  distinct ;  stigmas  feathery.  Caryopsis  oblong  or 
linear,  more  or  less  adherent  to  the  floral  glume  and  palea. 
Many  are  tufted  perennials;  leaves  flat,  covolute  when  dry,  or 
narrow  and  permanently  conduplicate.  The  glumes  are  longer 
and  more  pointed  than  in  Poa,  otherwise  the  two  genera  blend 
together. 

About  80  distinct  species,  many  of  which  are  quite  variable. 
Found  in  arctic,  cold,  and  temperate  regions. 

F.  elatior,  L.  Tall  Meadow  Fescue,  Randall  Grass,  Ever- 
green Grass. — A  perennial,  2-4  ft.  hi.,  usually  tufted.  Leaves 
broad,  flat,  panicle  narrow,  erect  or  nodding,  5-9  in.  Spikelets 
3-7-flowered,  about  |  in.  Floral  glume  pointed,  5-ribbed.  When 
the  panicle  is  much  branched  the  glumes  are  narrower  and  more 
pointed,  and  the  ribs  less  distinct. 

This  is  a  very  variable  perennial,  two  to  four  or  even  five  feet 
in  height,  generally  growing  in  tufts  or  bunches,  which  from 
year  to  year  creep  slowly  upward,  as  the  new  growth  springs 
from  the  side  of  the  old  culms,  a  little  above  that  of  the  previous 
year. 

The  roots  are  stout  and  woody,  with  a  slight  tendency  to 
sucker.  The  leaves  are  rather  firm,  flat,  varying  much  in  length 
and  breadth,  but  often  one  to  two  feet  long. 

The  nodding,  spreading  panicle  somewhat  resembles  that  of  a 


F.  ELATIOR,  L.  TALL  MEADOW  FESCUE.  127 

slender  top  of  chess,  with  which  every  farmer  is  familiar.     It 
flowers  about  a  week  or  ten  days  before  Timothy. 

This  valuable  grass,  with  several  kindred  species  and  varieties, 
is  found  throughout  Europe,  western  Asia,  and  has  been  intro- 
duced into  North  America. 

Tall  fescue  has  long  been  in  high  favor  with  the  best  farmers 
of  Great  Britain,  as  it  is  well  liked  by  all  domestic  herbivorous 
animals. 

Mr.  Gorrie,  a  competent  British  authority,  speaks  of  it  as  the 
most  important  species  of  the  fescues,  highly  valuable  for  per- 
manent grass  lands,  both  for  spring  and  autumn,  but  not  the 
hest  suited  for  alternate  husbandry,  as  it  does  not  attain  to  full 
productive  powers  till  the  third  year  from  sowing.  It  is  very 
nutritious,  making  excellent  hay  as  well  as  pasture. 

This  grass  is  seldom  sown  in  a  pure  state,  but  is  frequently 
met  with,  in  the  northern  States  especially,  where  the  soil  is 
heavy  and  inclined  to  be  moist.  It  seeds  freely,  and  the  seeds 
germinate  quickly  and  make  strong  young  plants.  If  used  alone, 
sow  two  bushels  to  the  acre. 

For  the  South,  Dr.  Phares  considers  it  one  of  the  best  winter 
grasses,  and  says  it  is  much  prized  as  far  north  as  Virginia,  where 
it  furnishes  cattle  good  grazing  in  mid-winter.  To  the  writer 
this  seems  to  be  one  of  the  most  promising  grasses  for  the  dry 
prairie  lands  of  the  west. 

Festuca  pratensis,  Huds.  Meadow  Fescue,  Randall  Grass.— 
By  many  botanists  this  is  considered  a  mere  variety  of  the  former 
species,  or  the  former  grass  a  mere  variety  of  this  one ;  some 
choosing  one  name,  some  the  other.  The  one  now  under  consid- 
eration much  resembles  the  tall  fescue.  It  is  a  little  earlier, 
considerable  smaller,  with  shorter,  thinner  leaves,  less  inclined  to 
grow  in  tufts,  top  narrower  and  simpler.  The  reader  should 
consult  the  remarks  on  Festuca  elatior,  which  mostly  apply  to 
this  one  also.  Most  of  the  seeds  sold  for  tall  meadow  fescue  are 


FIG.  65. 


F.  ELATIOR,  L.,  TALL  MEADOW  FESCUE.  129 

those  of  meadow  fescue  or  perennial  rye-grass,  and  most  of  those 
sold  for  meadow  fescue  are  all  seeds  of  rye-grass,  or  they  are  very 
extensively  adulterated  with  those  of  rye  -grass,  to  the  extent  of 
fifty  to  ninety  per  cent. 

In  the  words  of  James  Hunter,  a  seedsman  of  England :  "So 
closely  to  the  naked  eye  do  the  seeds  of  meadow  fescue  resemble 
the  seeds  of  perennial  rye-grass,  that  abundant  opportunities  for 
adulteration  are  afforded  and  are  certainly  not  neglected.  The 
fact  that  the  average  price  of  perennial  rye-grass  is  only  about 
one-fourth  or  one-fifth  that  of  meadow  fescue,  sufficiently  ex- 
plains the  motives  of  those  who  mix  these  seeds." 

The  writer  knows  well  that  the  frequent  adulteration  of  the 
seeds  of  meadow  fescue  is  one  of  the  chief  causes  why  so  little  is 
raised  in  this  country.  A  farmer  not  knowing  either  grass,  orders 
seed  of  this  one  and  gets  seeds  of  rye-grass,  which  produce  plants 
not  satisfactory  to  his  needs.  This  is  one  of  the  five  grasses 
recommended  by  Mr.  De  Laune,  of  England,  for  permanent 
pastures  and  meadows,  the  others  being  tall  fescue,  orchard  grass, 
Timothy,  and  meadow  foxtail.  His  valuable  experience  is  noticed 
under  the  head  of  "testing  seeds,"  and  "what  to  sow." 

The  writer  at  present  would  advise  no  one  to  buy  seeds  of 
meadow  or  tall  fescue  unless  he  is  a  good  botanist  or  employs 
a  good  botanist  to  examine  the  seeds  for  its  Identity. 

For  the  South,  Prof.  Phares  thinks  "  Kandall,  evergreen 
grass,  or  meadow  fescue  is  a  magnificent  winter  grass;  in  fact 
it  may  be  grazed  from  September  till  June.  Or  taking  stock 
off  in  April,  it  will  make  a  large  crop  of  seed,  and  a  heavy 
crop  of  hay,  as  the  seeds  mature  while  the  stems  and  leaves 
are  still  green.  This  may  be  made  to  yield  two  to  four  tons 
of  hay  per  acre  and  of  high  nutritive  rank.  It  grows  well  on 
wet  or  dry  bottoms,  hillsides  and  tops,  gravelly  and  loamy 

FIG.  65.-Festucii  elatior,  L.  (Taller  Fescue);  Part  of  plant,  a,  spikelet  enlarged;  ft, 
floret  enlargMl.-fScribner.) 

\ 


FIG.  66. 


F.  ELATIOR,  TALL  MEADOW   FESCUE.  181 

lands  and  clays,  and  having  many  fibrous  roots  running  down 
eight  to  fifteen  inches,  resists  the  droughts." 

For  Kansas,  read  what  Professor  Shelton  writes:  "After 
•experimenting  for  twelve  years,  I  have  often  wondered  that 
the  cultivation  of  this  grass  has  not  been  more  widely  extended. 
It  gives  a  good  amount  of  early  and  late  feed  of  good  quality, 
•and  yields  heavily,  of  good  hay.  It  endures  dry  weather,  in 
•strong  lands,  without  injury.  People  east  and  west  can  afford 
to  give  this  Festuca  a  trial.  Sow  two  to  two  and  a  half  bushels 
•of  seed  to  the  acre." 

Professors  Latta  and  Troop,  of  Indiana,  say  that  "  Meadow 
Fescue  and  Taller  Fescue  do  remarkably  well  at  Lafayette,  and 
•we  look  upon  them  as  the  coming  grasses  of  this  section.  The 
first  seems  to  give  better  satisfaction  as  hay,  while  the  second 
furnishes  more  pasture  after  cutting.  Its  leaves  are  too  rough 
and  harsh  for  hay." 

As  before  said  the  various  samples  of  this  grass  already  vary 
much  in  size  and  vigor,  and  this  shows  what  might  be  done  with 
a  little  time  and  care  in  selecting  certain  types  and  in  raising 
each  by  itself.  Like  Indian  corn,  they  seem  ready  to  break  up 
into  permanent  varieties.  Prof.  James  Buckman,  of  England, 
tried,  side  by  side,,  the  two  fescues  above  named,  and  another 
•called  Festuca  loliacea,  and  found  all  intermediate  stages  passing 
from  one  into  either  of  the  others,  but  under  certain  circum- 
stances each  maintained  its  distinct  characters. 

Festuca  elatior  yar.  arundinacea,  Tall  Meadow  Fescue.— 
Leaves  longer,  broader,  firmer,  culm  stouter  and  taller,  panicle 
more  erect,  roots  larger  and  stouter  than  F.  elatior. 

For  seven  years  the  writer  has  had  three  separate  forms  or 
races  of  the  larger  fescues,  each  of  which  came  from  seeds  of 
distinct  selected  plants.  The  mixed  seed  at  first  was  received 

FIG.  66.— Festuca  elatior  var.  arundinacea;  part  of  plant;  a  outer  glumes;  ft,  floral 
glume ;  c,  section  of  floral  glum  and  palea ;  d,  a  cross-section  of  same.— (Sudworth). 


132          F.  OVINA;   F.  DURIUSCULA,  L.;    P.   PRATENSIS,  L. 

from  the  Kew  Gardens.  Of  all  the  races  this  one  seems  the 
best  adapted  to  the  dry  prairie  regions  of  the  Central  United 
States. 

Festuca  ovina,  L.,  Sheep's  Fescue. — A  small  perennial, 
densely  tufted,  leaves  chiefly  radical,  very  narrow,  conduplicate, 
appearing  cylindrical,  the  upper  more  or  less  flattened.  Panicle 
one-sided,  short;  spikelets,  4-10-fld.  Glumes  faintly  nerved. 
Dry,  hilly  pastures,  very  variable.  Of  little  value,  but  here 
mentioned  because  it  is  so  common  and  likely  to  be  found. 

Festuca  duriuscula,  L.,  Hard  Fescue. — Compared  with  the 
preceding,  less  densely  tufted,  taller,  larger,  sheaths  downy. 
Panicle  more  open,  varying  much  in  color.  All  intermediate 
forms  can  be  selected  from  this  to  the  preceding,  of  which  many 
consider  it  a  mere  variety. 

For  dry  pastures  this  seems  to  be  worthy  of  some  attention. 

POA,     L. 

Spikelets,  2-6-flowered,  compressed,  in  loose  or  close  panicles; 
bunches,  2-nate  or  in  ^-whorls.  Rachilla  jointed  between  the 
flowers  which  are  perfect,  rarely  imperfect.  Empty  glumes 
unequal,  shorter  than  the  lowest  floral  one,  keeled,  acute  or 
obtuse ;  the  lower  1-nerved,  the  upper  larger,  3-nerved.  Floral 
glume  often  webbed  below,  keeled,  acute  or  obtuse,  5,  rarely 
7-nerved,  tips  hyaline.  Palea  2-nerved,  ciliate.  Lodicules  tumid 
below.  Stamens  3.  Styles  2,  short,  terminal,  distinct,  stigmas 
feathery.  Caryopsis  avoid,  oblong,  grooved,  free.  Annuals  or 
perennials,  low  or  tall,  leaves  flat  or  conduplicate.  About  80 
species,  chiefly  in  cold  or  temperate  regions,  nearly  related  to  the 
fescues,  having  shorter  and  more  compressed  glumes,  without 
awns. 

P.  pratensis,  L.  June  Grass,  Spear  Grass,  Green  Grass, 
Smooth-stalked  Meadow  Grass,  Blue  Grass,  Kentucky  Blue 
Grass. — A  perennial,  1-2  ft.  hi.,  with  creeping  root  stocks.  Culm, 


P.  PRATENSIS,  L,  JUNE  GRASS.  133 

smooth,  terete.  Leves  narrow,  keeled,  tip  closed,  ligule 
short,  obtuse.  Panicle  pyramidal,  2-3  inches  long,  with  slender, 
spreading  branches,  3-5-nate.  Spikelets  ovate  or  oblong,  3-5- 
flowered.  Floral  glume  silky-hairy  on  the  keel,  5-nerved.  See 
Fig.  51. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  common  and  most  useful  grasses  in  the 
Northern  temperate  zone ;  especially  valuable  in  North  America 
for  lawns  and  permanent  pastures. 

It  is  not  so  highly  esteemed  in  Great  Britain  as  in  this  country, 
as  there  it  is  objected  to  on  account  of  excluding  other  grasses 
which  are  considered  more  valuable  in  that  climate.  It  is  found 
•also  in  Asia  and  Australia,  varying  considerably  in  size  and 
appearance. 

June  grass  varies  in  height,  from  a  few  inches  to  a  foot,  and 
in  rich  ground,  where  the  stems  have  not  yet  become  crowded, 
samples  may  be  found  which  exceed  four  feet.  It  is  noted  for 
root  stocks  which  spread  rapidly  and  fill  the  ground  near  the  sur- 
face with  a  close  mat  of  turf,  much  like  quack  grass.  This 
makes  the  grass  very  tenacious  and  hard  to  kill,  especially  in 
moist  land  or  in  wet  seasons  when  the  land  is  used  for  a  hoed 
•crop.  The  crowding  of  these  root  stocks  weakens  the  stems  above 
ground  and  soon  a  large  amount  of  vegetable  matter  accumulates 
near  the  surface. 

It  flowers  about  the  same  time  as  the  earliest  red  clover  and 
orchard  grass,  and  nearly  all  comes  on  at  once.  The  seed  soon 
matures,  and,  unlike  Poa  compressa  and  Poa  serotina,  the  culms 
soon  turn  yellow  and  die,  and  the  leaves  become  feeble  or  perish. 

It  flowers  but  once  a  year.  The  leaves  are  slender  and  when 
dry  fold  up  like  the  two  halves  of  a  book  when  closed. 

As  stock  feed  off  the  leaves, many  of  them,  and  some  new  ones, 
continue  to  elongate  by  growth  at  the  base  of  the  blade  near  the 
apex  of  the  sheath.  The  apex  of  the  blade  is  the  oldest  portion; 
the  base  the  youngest. 


134  P,  PRATENSIS,  L.,  JUNE  GRASS. 

In  a  wet  season,  in  a  hedge,  the  writer  found  some  leaves  still 
green  and  thrifty  where  they  were  almost  (5£  ft.)  five  and  a  half 
feet  long. 

Although  this  grass  is  so  very  common,  yet  frequent  inquiries 
are  made  in  reference  to  its  value.  Are  June  grass  and  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  or  blue  grass  of  Kentucky,  the  same? 

Frequent  experiments  and  careful  study  by  the  botanists  prove 
that  they  are  without  question  identical — one  and  the  same. 

We  have  a  rather  thin,  short,  late  grass,  with  short  leaves,  a 
small  top,  and  a  flattened  stem.  This  one  noted  in  the  last  sen- 
tence is  very  rich,  of  a  dark  bluish-green  color,  and  is  often  called 
"blue  grass,"  a  name  which  it  richly  deserves.  It  is  Poa  com- 
pressa,  wire  grass  or  flat  stemed  poa,  an  account  of  which  should 
be  read  in  this  connection. 

June  grass  starts  quickly  in  spring,  after  mowing  or  feeding, 
unless  the  weather  be  quite  dry.  It  is  very  rarely  injured  by  the 
•cold,  and  very  hard  to  kill  by  dry  weather,  hot  sun,  the  tramp- 
ing of  hoofs,  or  close  mowing.  It  is  a  perennial,  living  on  and 
on  almost  indefinitely. 

In  most  soils  the  stalks  are  too  short  for  a  large  yield  of  hay, 
but  if  cut  early,  in  flower  or  a  little  before,  and  well  cured,  the 
hay  is  very  rich,  and  will  go  a  great  way,  considering  its  bulk. 

It  is  too  frequently  condemned  for  its  single  crop  of  short 
stems  and  leaves. 

It  does  not  get  a  great  name  on  account  of  its  value  for  meadow, 
but  on  account  of  its  endurance  and  great  worth  for  permanent 
pasture  and  lawn. 

The  leaves  keep  growing  and  make  much  feed,  if  the  soil  and 
season  be  not  unfavorable. 

Like  all  other  grasses  for  feeding  in  cold  weather  or  in  a  very 
dry  spell,  it  should  be  allowed  to  get  a  good  start  before  this  try- 
ing time  arrives. 

But  few  sections  of  countiy  are  suited  to  a  permanent  and  fine 


P.  PBATENSIS,  L,,  JUNE  GRASS.  185 

growth  of  June  grass.  Such  land  is  always  deep,  rich,  and  valu- 
able for  many  other  crops.  The  forest  trees  in  such  sections  of 
the  United  States  are  usually  large,  tall,  thick,  abounding  in 
sugar  maple,  black  walnut,  hickory,  white,  black,  and  blue  ashes, 
red  elm,  black  cherry,  and  burr  oak. 

A  Kentucky  farmer  says;  "  Whoever  has  lime-stone  land  has 
blue  grass ;  whoever  has  blue  grass  has  the  basis  of  all  agricult- 
ural prosperity,  and  that  man,  if  he  has  not  the  finest  horses, 
cattle,  and  sheep  has  no  one  to  blame  but  himself." 

Besides  some  portions  of  Kentucky,  there  are  also  a  few  counties 
or  parts  of  counties  in  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  Indiana. 

It  requires  three  years  or  more  to  become  well  established,  and 
on  this  account  should  not  be  sown  for  one  or  two  crops  of  grass 
or  hay. 

Among  the  numerous  plats  of  grasses,  clovers,  and  other  ex- 
perimental plants  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  not  one 
is  so  persistently  omnipresent  as  June  grass.  The  seeds  push  up 
and  make  young  plants  at  all  growing  seasons  of  the  year ;  these 
cannot  always  be  certainly  detected  until  their  tops  appear.  In 
Michigan  it  is  certainly  a  good  fighter.  The  spreading  so  rapidly 
by  root  stocks,  and  its  tenacity  of  life,  account  for  the  fact  that 
it  soon  appears  in  pastures  or  old  meadows  when  the  other  grasses 
die  out.  June  grass  is  not  very  often  sown  for  pasture  or  meadow, 
yet  it  abounds  in  most  of  our  pastures,  especially  if  they  have  not 
been  plowed  for  some  time. 

Read  Professor  Phares  as  to  its  success  in  the  South :  "  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass  grows  as  well  in  most  parts  of  the  Gulf  States 
as  in  Kentucky  or  any  other  State.  In  these  States  this  grass  is 
perennial  and  excellent  for  hay  and  grazing  through  a  large  part 
of  the  year." 

In  the  famous  experiments  on  meadow  grasses  by  J.  B.  Lawes, 
in  England,  Poa  pratensis  on  the  permanently  unmatured  land 
made  a  very  poor  fight,  amounting  to  one-quarter  of  one  per  cent 


136  P.  PRATENSIS,  L.,  JUNE  GRASS. 

or  even  less  of  the  herbage,  while  on  plats  receiving  a  large 
quantity  of  potash,  phosphate  of  lime,  and  salts  of  ammonia, 
in  fact  everything  that  is  necessary  to  grow  luxuriant  grass,  it 
managed  to  fight  its  way  onward,  so  that  in  ten  years  it  was 
credited  with  twenty-two  per  cent  of  the  whole  herbage. 

With  a  still  more  generous  diet,  it  had  to  give  way  to  cock's 
foot  [orchard  grass],  which  in  turn  gave  way  to  meadow  foxtail, 
v  Concerning  this  grass  for  Kansas,  Professor  Shelton  writes: 
' '  "What  we  said  five  years  ago  in  writing  of  this  grass  has  been 
fully  borne  out  by  recent  experience.  It  can  be  grown  almost 
anywhere  in  the  now  settled  portions  of  the  State.  We  have 
never  failed  to  secure  a  good  stand,  and  ultimately  a  good  sod, — 
even  during  such  very  dry  seasons  as  1875, — when  good  seed  was 
sown  upon  well  prepared  land,  and  at  the  proper  season,  which 
is  early  in  the  spring.  However,  our  experience  with  the  grass, — 
a  very  extended  one  by  the  way, — has  convinced  us  that,  for  all 
useful  purposes  except  lawns,  in  central  and  western  Kansas, 
this  is  one  of  the  most  worthless  of  the  tame  grasses.  It  starts 
early  in  the  season,  and  for  a  short  time  yields  a  small  amount  of 
quite  inferior  feed;  but  in  May  it  ripens  its  seed,  the  grass 
becomes  brown,  dry,  and  fibrous,  and  in  this  dormant  condition 
it  remains  until  fall,  and  often  until  the  following  spring.  We 
have  invariably  found,  too,  that,  in  a  field  containing  other  sorts, 
cattle  will  not  touch  blue  grass  until  all  these  others  are  con- 
sumed. Moreover,  dry  weather  will  almost  certainly  injure  blue 
grass  sod  seriously,  when  no  damage  is  sustained  by  orchard  grass 
and  clover  growing  in  the  same  field.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
eastern  portions  of  the  State,  particularly  in  the  counties  border- 
ing the  Missouri  river,  we  know  from  porsonal  observation  that 
blue-grass  thrives  abundantly,  and  is  very  profitable  grass. 

"  We  can  easily  see  that  this  grass  possesses  great  value  for  a 
region  like  Illinois  and  Kentucky,  where  winter  rains  abound, 
enabling  it  to  make  a  slow  and  continuous  growth;  but  the 


P.  COMPRESSA,  LM  WIRE  GRASS.  187 

Kansas  winter  is  generally  our  dryest  season,  and  for  this  reason 
we  doubt  much  if  this  old  favorite  sort  has  any  place  in  our  agri- 
culture. To  obtain  a  good  stand  quickly,  blue  grass  seed  should 
be  sown  in  the  early  spring ;  and  in  amount  not  less  than  three 
bushels  per  acre  of  ground." 

The  following  in  reference  to  the  quality  of  this  grass,  is  from 
the  pen  of  of  Dr.  Bessey,  of  Nebraska : 

"  Passing  now  to  the  nutritiousness  of  blue  grass,  we  find  that 
it  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  cultivated  grasses,  as  show  by 
repeated  chemical  analysis.  It  is  very  nearly  twice  as  nutritious, 
weight  for  weight,  as  Timothy.  As  compared  with  red  top, 
the  latter  has  about  five-sixths  the  value  of  that  of  blue  grass. 
Orchard  grass  likewise,  has  about  five-sixths  the  nutritious  value 
of  blue  grass.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  clear  that  the 
high  rank  held  by  blue  grass  for  pasturage  is  well  merited." 

June  grass,  in  a  cool  climate,  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  our  grasses 
for  a  lawn,  and  when  sown  on  rich  land  and  cut  often,  it  makes  a 
a  soft,  thick  green  turf,  which  is  a  delight  to  the  eye  and  to  the 
feet  which  tread  upon  it.  In  many  places  nothing  else  need  be 
sown.  For  a  good  lawn  sow  four  bushels  to  the  acre. 

Much  of  the  seed  is  saved  in  Kentucky,  where  it  is  tied  in 
bundles  and  set  up  in  cocks  till  the  tops  decay  sufficiently  to 
break  up  easily.  It  needs  care  to  prevent  this  seed  from  heating 
and  iujury  when  piled  np  in  the  chaff. 

In  some  cases  the  tops,  when  ripe,  are  taken  off  with  a  stripper 
with  a  box  behind  it,  the  whole  kept  on  wheels. 

Poa  compressa,  L.  Wire  Grass,  Blue  Grass,  Flat-stemmed 
Poa,  Flat-staked  Meadow  Grass.— A  perennial,  about  I  ft.  hi., 
with  creeping  rootstocks,  and  smooth  compressed  culms.  Leaves 
short,  with  flattened  sheaths,  and  a  short,  obtuse  ligule.  Panicle 
oblong,  2-3  in.  long,  slightly  •  spreading  branches,  2-3-nate. 
Spikelets  ovate-oblong,  4,  6,  or  even  9-flowered.  Floral  glumes 
18 


r PE  CQ.PHILA 


FIG,  67. 


P.  COMPRESSA,  L.,  WIRE  GRASS.  139 

with  minute  silky  hairs  along  the  keel,  margins  hyaline ;  nerves 
obscure. 

Although  not  purposely  sown  anywhere,  so  far  as  the  writer 
can  learn,  it  deserves  notice  because  so  often  found  in  rather  dry, 
thin  pastures  on  sand,  gravel,  or  clay  soil,  in  company  with  June 
grass,  which  it  somewhat  resembles. 

The  grass  is  a  perennial,  a  foot  or  more  high,  with  a  stem 
nearly  solid,  hard  to  cut,  soon  gumming  the  knives  of  the  mower. 
When  compared  with  June  grass,  it  flowers  several  weeks  later, 
the  panicle  is  shorter,  narrower,  more  compact;  the  leaves 
shorter,  the  stem  much  flattened,  and  the  whole  plant  of  a  much 
darker  color.  In  this  country  it  does  not  spread  rapidly  by  root- 
stalks,  as  is  the  case  with  June  grass  and  quack  grass,  but  in 
England  it  does  spread  rapidly. 

It  well  deserves  the  name  "blue  grass,"  by  which  it  is  often 
known,  as  the  whole  plant  has  a  dark,  bluish,  glaucous -green 
color.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  name  ' l  blue  grass  "  was  ever 
applied  to  Poa  pratensis,  as  is  commonly  the  case  in  Kentucky 
and  vicinity. 

Prof.  D.  L.  Phares,  in  his  manual  of  grasses  for  the  Southern 
States,  says:  "Poa  compressa  is  blue,  the  'true  blue*  grass, 
from  which  the  genus  received  its  trivial  name.'  It  has  priority 
of  claim  to  the  name  blue  grass,  and  justly  too,  as  the  leaves  have 
a  deep  bluish  tint/' 

Like  Poa  serotina,  fowl  meadow  grass,  it  may  be  allowed  to 
get  ripe  before  cutting,  as  its  stalks  remain  green  and  nutritious. 
No  grass  makes  richer  pasture  or  richer  hay,, 

Gould  says :  "  It  never  forms  a  close  turf,  and  is  rarely  found 
intermixed  with  other  grasses.  It  never  yields  a  great  bulk  of 
hay,  but  this  bulk  weighs  very  heavily,  frequently  a  ton  or  a  ton 
and  a  half  to  the  acre,  where  one  would  not  expect  to  get  half 
a  ton. 

FIG.  67.— 1,  Plant  of  Poa  compressa;  2,  5,  spikelets;  4,  empty  glumes;   6,  floral 
glume.    (1  from  U.  S.  Agricultual  Report.    2-5,  F.  L.  Scribner.) 


140  P.  SEROTINA,  E.,  FOWL  MEADOW  GRASS. 

"  It  is  certain  that  cows  that  feed  upon  it,  both  in  pasture  and 
in  hay,  give  more  milk  and  keep  in  better  condition  than  when 
fed  on  any  other  grass.  Horses  fed  on  this  hay  will  do  as  well 
as  when  fed  on  Timothy  hay  and  oats  combined.  Sheep  fatten 
astonishingly  when  fed  upon  it, 

"  The  crops  are  remarkably  even ;  it  rarely  suffers  from  exces- 
sive wetness  or  dryness.  By  manuring,  we  have  increased  the 
size  of  the  culms,  and  caused  them  to  grow  two  feet  high.  It  is 
one  of  the  hardiest  grasses  known.  It  is,  perhaps,  rather  better 
suited  to  moist,  gravelly  clays.  It  keeps  green  even  until  the 
heavy  frosts  of  winter.  It  loses  less  weight  in  drying  than  any 
other  species.  Although  this  grass  is  spoken  of  by  most  writers 
on  the  subject  in  terms  of  contempt,  we  must  differ  very  decidedly 
from  them,  and  adhere  to  the  opinion  which  we  have  formed 
after  much  observation  and  experience,  that  it  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  and  nutritious  of  them  all." 

Poa  serotina,  Ehrh.  Fowl  Meadow  Grass,  False  Red  Top. — 
Culms  rather  weak,  2-3  ft.  hi.  Leaves  narrow,  smooth,  ligules 
T3^  in.  Panicle,  6-14  in.,  slender,  open,  branches  mostly  5-nate. 
Spikelets  numerous,  acute,  short,  pedicelled,  often  purplish. 
Floral  glumes  obscurely  nerved,  webbed  at  base. 

The  name  "Fowl"  meadow  is  said  to  have  been  applied  to 
this  grass  because  ducks  and  other  wild  water  birds  were  supposed 
to  have  introduced  the  grass  into  a  poor  low  meadow  in  Dedham, 
Massachusetts. 

This  is  a  native  grass,  found  on  bottom  lands  in  the  eastern 
half  of  the  Northern  States.  It  flowers  about  the  same  time  as 
Timothy.  It  makes  a  soft,  pliable  hay  of  excellent  quality.  The 
stems  in  damp  weather  branch  at  the  lower  joints,  and  thus  the 
grass  inclines  to  spread.  On  account  of  the  large  top,  and  the 
slender  stem,  this  grass  when  sown  alone  is  rather  inclined  to 

FIG.  68.— 7,  Plant  of  Poa  serotina :  2,  3,  spikelets  ;  4,  floral  glume.  (The  first  from 
U.  S.  Agricultural  Report,  2-4,  F.  L.  Scribner.) 


142  ROUGH-STALKED  MEADOW  GRASS. 

fall  over  or  lodge.  This  is  one  reason  for  growing  it  with  other 
grasses,  like  red  top,  which  has  larger  and  stiff er  stems.  Like 
Poa  compressa  or  wire  grass,  it  flowers  rather  late,  has  a  dark 
green  stem,  which  remains  green  and  nutritious  for  a  long  time 
after  the  plant  has  gone  to  seed.  It  does  not  spread  by  root- 
stocks,  like  June  grass.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  stems  remain 
green  and  succulent  after  flowering,  there  is  not  so  much  need  of 
cutting  this  grass  when  in  flower  as  there  is  of  cutting  most  other 
grasses  at  that  time.  It  may  be  allowed  to  go  to  seed  before 
cutting,  then  threshed,  and  the  straw  fed  out.  In  this  way  the 
hay  is  not  so  good,  but  answers  very  well,  makes  a  profitable  crop, 
as  we  get  both  an  abundance  of  good  seeds  and  forage.  The 
second  growth,  after  feeding  or  mowing,  starts  quite  slowly,  and 
like  Timothy,  it  is  not  well  adapted  for  pasture.  The  grass  will 
grow  on  almost  any  rich,  arable  land,  making  a  fair  crop,  but  it 
likes  moist  land.  The  seeds  are  small  and  require  more  than 
one  year  to  make  strong  plants,  hence  it  is  not  suitable  for  alter- 
nate husbandry. 

Although  grown  in  the  Eastern  States  for  150  years,  pure  seeds 
are  not  often  found  in  market.  They  are  difficult  to  identify  by 
seedsmen  and  farmers,  and  both  are  liable  to  be  misled.  This  is 
true  of  many  other  grasses,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  many 
"  practical"  reasons  why  farmers  stick  to  a  few  well  known  sorts. 

Although  tried  in  Europe,  its  culture  has  not  met  with  much 
favor  there. 

Poa  trivialis,  L.  Bough-stalked  Meadow  Grass.— Culms 
decumbent  at  base,  without  rooistocks,  taller  and  more  slender 
than  Poa  pratensis.  Culms  and  sheaths  usually  rough ;  ligule 
oblong,  acute.  Panicle  4-6  in.,  slender,  spreading,  5-nate. 
Spikelets  mostly  3-fld.  Floral  glumes  accumate,  nerves  distinct. 
Found  in  Europe,  N".  Africa,  Siberia,  and  introduced  into 
America. 

This  perennial  is  employed  in  Great  Britain  for  meadow  and 


TEXAS  BLUE  GRASS.  143 

pasture,  and  is  there  usually  much  preferred  to  June  grass,  which 
it  much  resembles.  It  is  to  that  country  what  June  grass  is  to 
the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  The  grass  is  suited  to 
deep,  moist  loam,  to  sow  with  red  top  and  fowl  meadow  grass, 
but  poorly  suited  to  dry  soils. 

The  late  Prof.  James  Buckman,  of  England,  said :  ie  Poa 
trivialis,  is  a  month  later  than  June  grass  and  inferior  to  it." 
In  Europe  the  seeds  of  June  grass  are  often  sold  for  those  of 
Poa  trivialis. 

In  my  plats  of  grasses  in  several  places,  this  has  always  proved 
a  slow  grower,  and  has  soon  been  crowded  out  by  June  grass. 

P.  arachnifera,  Torr.  Texas  Blue  Grass.— This  plant  is  well 
supplied  with  creeping  rootstocks,  and  is  taller  than  P.pratensis. 
The  leaves  are  long  and  slender ;  ligule  short  and  obtuse.  Pan- 
icle 4-6  in.  by  £  in.,  light  colored.  Floral  glumes  prominently 
ciliate  on  the  keel  below  the  middle ;  at  the  base  usually  are  very 
long,  webby  hairs,  Palea  ciliate  on  the  nerves,  slightly  adherent 
to  the  caryopsis,  which  is  twice  as  long  as  that  of  P.  pratensis. 

For  the  South,  as  a  pasture  grass,  this  one  seems  very  promis- 
ing. It  is  hardy  and  a  more  rapid  grower  than  Kentucky  blue 
grass. 

As  far  north  as  Kansas,  Professor  Shelton  says,  it  endures  the 
winters  and  resists  drought  perfectly,  making  three  or  four  times 
as  much  pasture  or  hay  as  does  its  near  relative,  Kentucky  blue 
grass.  He  is  very  hopeful  of  this  grass. 

AGEOSTIS,    L. 

Spikelets  small,  1-fld.,  panicled,  flower  perfect,  empty  glumes 
persistent  below  the  joint,  keeled,  acute;  floral  glume  shorter, 
broad  hyaline,  frequently  supplied  with  a  slender  awn  below  the 
middle.  Palea  very  slender,  hyaline,  short  or  none.  Stamens 
mostly  3.  Styles  distinct,  very  short,  stigmas  feathery.  Cary- 
opsis included  in  the  floral  glume,  free.  Annuals  or  perennials, 


A.  VULGARIS,  VAR.  ALBA,  RED  TOP.  145 

tufted,  leaves  flat  or  bristly.  Panicle  terminal,  usually  slender, 
much  branched :  branches  slender,  spikelets  numerous. 

About  100  species,  mostly  found  in  temperate  regions. 

A.  vulgaris,  yar.  alba,  With,  Bed  Top,  Herd's  Grass  (of 
the  South),  Burden's  Grass,  Summer  Dew  Grass. — Culms  1-2 
ft.  hi.,  ascending,  smooth,  from  creeping  rootstocks.  Leaves 
short,  flat;  ligule  oblong.  Panicle  oblong,  3x8  in.,  branches 
spreading.  Empty  glumes  subequal,  or  the  lower  longer,  ovate 
or  lanceolate,  acute,  often  purple.  Floral  glume  shorter,  trun- 
cate, 3-nerved;  awn  short  or  none.  Palea  about  one-half  as  long 
as  the  floral  glume. 

This  is  erroneously  sometimes  called  "fowl  meadow  grass." 
In  England  it  is  also  called  "red  bent,5  "purple  bent,"  "creep- 
ing rooted  bent,"  "black  twich." 

It  is  a  well  known,  common,  native,  perennial  grass,  found  on 
moist  bottom  lands,  where  it  flowers  with  Timothy  or  later.  The 
spreading  panicle  vaiies  considerably  in  appearance,  but  is  usually 
tinged  with  purple. 

It  starts  rather  late  in  spring  or  after  cutting,  affording  very 
good  pasture,  remaining  green  for  a  great  part  of  the  year.  It 
yields  from  one  to  two  tons  of  hay  to  the  acre  j  is  of  good  quality 
and  rather  light  for  its  bulk.  Chemical  analysis  shows  it  to 
rank  next  to  June  grass,  very  high  in  nutritive  qualities. 

Eed  top  in  this  country  is  often  sown  on  marshes,  too  wet  for 
some  of  the  better  grasses.  It  is  not  well  adapted  to  alternate 
husbandry,  as  it  takes  several  years  to  become  well  established. 

Gould  says:  "Its  interlacing  thick  roots  consolidate  the  sward, 
making  a  firm  matting,  which  prevents  the  feet  of  cattle  from 
poaching.  It  is  generally  considered  a  valuable  grass  in  this 
country,  though  by  no  means  the  best  one.  Cattle  eat  hay  made 
from  it  with  a  relish,  and  as  a  pasture  grass  it  is  much  valued  by 

FIG.  69.— a.  Plant  of  Poa  arachnifera,  Torr,  (Texas  Blue  Grass);  6,  spikelet,  enlarged 
and  spread  out;  c,  floret.— (Scribner), 

19 


146 


A.   VULGARIS,   VAR.    ALBA,   RED   TOP. 


FIG.  70. 


A.  VTJLGARIS,  VAR    ALBA,  RED  TOP.  147 

dairymen,  and  in  their  opinion  the  butter  would  suffer  much  by 
its  removal, " 

Professor  Phares  says  "It  furnishes  considerable  grazing 
during  warm  'spells'  in  winter,  and  in  spring  and  summer  an 
abundant  supply  of  nutrition.  It  will  continue  indefinitely, 
though  easily  subdued  by  the  plow.  It  seems  to  grow  taller  in 
the  southern  States  than  it  does  farther  north,  and  it  makes  more 
and  better  hay  and  grazing.  It  does  well  with  Timothy,  but  will 
finally  root  out  the  latter.  Sow  about  two  bushels  (24  Ibs.)  per 
acre  if  alone. 

"  Bed  top  may  be  pastured  here  through  most  of  the  year, 
furnishing  considerable  grazing  even  along  through  winters, 
growing  on  almost  all  soils  if  not  kept  too  long  submerged  in 
water.  It  is  very  hardy,  and  in  mixed  pastures  exterminates, 
after  a  few  years,  most  other  grasses/' 

Killebrew?  of  Tennessee,  says.  "  Red  top  is  next  in  import- 
ance to  Timothy  as  a  meadow  grass.  Grazing  is  necessary  to  its 
preservation,  as,  if  allowed  to  go  to  seed  a  few  years,  it  dies  out. 

It  is  the  most  permanent  grass  we  have,,  and  by  means  of  its 
long,  creeping  roots  will,  even  it  sown  too  thin,  quickly  take 
possession  of  the  ground.  On  uplands  it  is  not  a  good  producer. 
It  stands  the  effects  of  drought  much  better  than  Timothy.  For 
stopping  gullies  in  old  fields  it  is  superior  to  blue  grass.  The 
seed  is  usually  sold  in  the  chaff  It  is  probably  better  adapted 
to  all  the  soils  of  the  State  [Tennessee]  than  any  other  grass." 

Howard  of  Georgia,  says ;  ic  It  will  grow  almost  in  running 
water.  It  yields  a  valuable  return  on  thinner  land  than,  perhaps, 
any  other  of  the  cultivated  grasses.  Timothy  and  red  top  should 
be  sown  together,  as  they  are  ready  for  the  scythe  at  the  same 
time.  This  mixture  is  better  than  either  grass  singly." 

In  England  Agrostis  vulgans  differs  somewhat  from  the  same 

FIG.  70.— Agrostis  vulgaris  var.  alba.  (Red  Top) ;  number  7,  a  plant ;  a,  spikelet ;  b, 
empty  glumes  ;  a,  d,  florets. — (Scribner.) 


148  A.  ALBA,  L.  CREEPING  BENT- GRASS. 

grass  in  this  country.  In  that  country  it  is  not  given  in  the  lists 
of  grasses  recommended  for  cultivation. 

l}r.  Lindley  says:  "  They  are  little  better  than  weeds,  except 
in  soils  where  better  grasses  cannot  be  obtained.  It  grows  in  dry, 
gravelly,  sandy  places,  and  is  a  troublesome  weed." 

Mr.  Gorrie,  of  England,  says:  :e Remarkably  variable  in  habit 
and  appearance,  too  common  and  disliked  by  cattle.  It  starts 
late  in  spring." 

Baron  J.  B.  Lawes,  says:  "It  flourishes  most  on  dry  soils, 
and  is  a  troublesome  weed  on  arable  land,  disliked  by  cattle  and 
sheep.  It  is  reported  as  useless,  and  should  be  discouraged  as 
much  as  possible.  In  manuring  the  land,  the  proportion  of  this 
grass  was  very  much  reduced  in  every  instance,  a  result  certainly 
not  to  be  regretted." 

Agrostis  alba,  L.  Creeping  or  Marsh  Bent,  Florin,  White 
Bent,  White  Top,  Bonnet  Grass. — A  perennial,  6-24  in.  hi., 
often  prostrate  below.  Leaves  flat,  sheaths  smooth,  ligule  long, 
acute.  Panicle  contracted,  narrow,  3  in.,  many  small  branches 
in  a  whorl.  Palea  with  two  tufts  of  hairs  at  the  base.  Very 
variable. 

By  some  this  is  equivalent  to  Agrostis  stolonifera,  by  others  it 
is  thought  to  be  a  mere  variety  of  red  top,  or  red  top  a  mere 
variety  of  this  grass.  Although  not  considered  very  valuable, 
yet  it  is  often  recommended  in  Great  Britain  in  mixtures  for 
permanent  pastures.  It  starts  early  and  holds  out  very  late  in 
autumn.  A  creeping  habit  makes  it  much  like  June  grass,  diffi- 
cult to  kill  out  on  wet  land.  It  is  not  suitable  for  dry  land,  but 
for  wet,  bottom  lands  or  for  permanent  irrigated  meadows,  where 
it  often  produces  large  crops. 

Along  the  Connecticut  river,  the  straws  are  cut  for  braiding 
to  make  bonnets.  In  this  country,  so  far  as  the  writer  has  seen, 

FIG.  71.— Agrostis  canina  L.  (Brown  Bent.  Rhode  Island  Bent),  a,  plant ;  b,  spikelet 
c,  back  of  floral  glume  with  awn.  (Riechenbach.) 


FIG.  71. 


r.LScribner    del. 


tVYTYPC  CO.PHfL*. 


A.  CANINA,  L.  BROWN  BENT -GRASS.  151 

florin  does  not  seem  to  be  as  large,  vigorous,  productive,  or  as 
valuable  as  our  own  native  red  top. 

A^rostis  canina,  L.  Brown  Bent,  Rhode  Island  Bent,  Fine 
Top,  Furze  Top,  Burden's  Grass.— A  very  variable  perennial, 
much  like  small  plants  of  A  vulgaris.  Culms  6-18  in.  hi.,  stolo- 
niferous.  Ligule  oblong.  Panicle  2-4  in.,  contracting  in  fruit, 
usually  purple.  Floral  glumes  shorter  than  the  empty,  5-nerved ; 
awned  on  the  back,  near  the  middle  or  below.  Palea  minute  or 
none. 

Widely  distributed  in  cool  regions. 

J.  B.  Alcott  says:  "  There  is  as  much  difference  between  this 
and  red  top  as  there  is  between  the  Tom  Thumb  pea  and  the 
marrowfat.  It  will  make  beautiful,  close,  fine  sod  upon  quite 
sterile  soils.  This,  red  top  will  not  do.  It  is  especially  satisfac- 
tory for  lawns,  which  in  strong  soils  is  apt  to  overgrow." 

It  makes  very  good  pasture,  though  it  is  too  small  and  grows 
too  closely  to  afford  much  of  a  bite.  For  fifteen  years  the  writer 
has  watched  it  in  Michigan,  on  thin  soils  and  on  rich  soils,  on 
moist  land  and  on  dry,  sandy  land,  and  he  unhesitatingly  recom- 
mends it  as  one  of  the  very  best  grasses  to  mix  with  June  grass 
for  producing  a  fine  lawn.  If  sown  alone,  four  bushels  of  seed 
in  the  chaff  is  none  too  much. 

This  grass,  with  considerable  variation,  is  often  found  on 
mountains  in  Europe,  Asia,  Australia,  and  North  America. 

A  small  Agrostis,  probably  A.  vulgaris,  of  Europe,  has  been 
much  used  for  lawns,  and  by  some  it  has  passed  for  A.  canina. 

ALOPECURUS,    L.     FOX    TAIL. 

Spikelets  1-flowered,  flat,  crowded  into  a  head  or  cylindrical 
spike-like  panicle,  jointed  at  the  apex  of  the  enlarged  pedicel, 
flowers  perfect.  Glumes  3  or  4,  the  2  outer  empty,  acute,  awnless 
or  short  awned,  often  connate  below,  flat-keeled,  the  keel  ciliate 

FIG.  ~~.  -1,  Plant  ot  AlopecuruH  -pratensds,  a  little  reduced;  2,  spikelet;  5,  floral 
(lame.  (TrinUfl  and  Scribner.) 


152  A.    PRATENSIS,  L.,   MEADOW  FOXTAIL. 

and  sometimes  winged ;  the  floral  glume  obtuse,  hyaline,  3-5  nerved, 
with  a  short  awn  on  the  back,  or  mucronate,  the  margins  joined 
at  the  base  into  a  tube  inclosing  the  flower ;  the  palea  sometimes 
present,  narrow,  hyaline,  keeled,  acute,  partly  included  by  the 
floral  glume.  Stamens  3.  Styles  distinct  or  rarely  joined  at  the 
base  or  the  middle,  stigmas  short,  hairy.  Annual  or  perennial 
grasses,  erect  or  decumbent  at  the  base ;  leaves  either  flat  or 
convolute,  upper  sheaths  often  inflated.  Spikelets  or  panicles- 
spike-like,  terminal. 

About  20  species  in  temperate  and  cold  countries. 

A.  pratensis,  L.  Meadow  Foxtail. — A  soft  erect  perennial, 
1-3  ft.  hi.  Leaves  flat,  upper  sheath  inflated,  longer  than  its 
blade;  ligule  oblong  truncate.  Spikelets  3-8  in.,  ^  in.  or  more 
in  diameter,  dense,  obtuse,  soft,  pale  green.  Spikelets  |--£in. 
long.  Empty  glumes,  membranous  ciliate  on  the  keel  only,  ovate 
lanceolate,  acute,  connate  at  the  base.  Floral  glumes  ciliate, 
as  long  as  the  empty  glumes,  awn.  near  the  base  and  projecting 
half  its  length. 

Found  in  Europe,  North  Africa,  Western  Asia,  introduced  into 
America. 

In  Great  Britain  and  other  parts  of  Europe  with  a  like  climate, 
this  is  one  of  the  best  known  and  highly  esteemed  grasses  which 
is  cultivated  for  permanent  meadow  and  pasture. 

It  bears  considerable  resemblance  to  Timothy,  though  the 
culm  and  leaves  are  shorter,  the  spikes  shorter,  broader,  and 
softer ;  the  whole  plant  less  firm  and  rough,  and  it  starts  much 
earlier  in  spring,  flowering  three  or  four  weeks  before  this  well 
known  grass. 

Meadow  foxtail  is  not  well  adapted  for  alternate  husbandry,  as 
it  requires  three  or  four  years  to  become  well  established,  but  on 
deep,  rich,  moist,  or  irrigated  soils,  in  a  cool  climate  not  subject 
to  droughts  or  very  hot  weather,  it  is  a  fine  grass  and  peculiarly 
well  adapted  for  permanent  pasture.  It  makes  a  quick  growth 


SWEET  SCENTED  VERNAL-GRASS.  153 

in  spring  or  after  feeding  or  mowing.  It  is  fine,  nutritious,  and 
palatable  for  all  kinds  of  stock. 

Like  Timothy,  it  has  no  tendency  to  spread,  as  is  the  case  with 
June  grass,  quack  grass,  and  white  clover.  Mr.  Lawes'  experi- 
ments show  that  it  thrives  best  with  high  manuring,  supplying 
much  nitrogen.  In  this  respect  it  comes  into  competition  with 
orchard  grass. 

There  is  considerable  difficulty  in  procuring  good  seed,  which 
is  very  light,  and  sold  in  the  chaff,  only  weighing  five  pounds  to 
the  bushel.  If  sowed  alone,  three  bushels  to  the  acre  is  none  too 
much.  The  seeds  are  often  adulterated  with  those  of  Holcus 
lanatus,  Alopecurus  agrostis  and  rye-grass.  The  first  two  grasses 
are  of  very  poor  quality,  the  latter  is  much  cheaper  and  costs  not 
over  one-eighth  part  as  much  per  pound.  Other  seeds  are  also 
often  found  with  those  of  meadow  foxtail. 

The  seeds  ripen  unevenly,  some  beginning  to  fail  while  much 
is  yet  immature  or  even  in  flower. 

Many  glumes  are  empty;  insects,  blight,  or  something  else 
causing  the  failures.  The  small  seed  produces  a  small,  feeble 
plant,  which  requires  a  favorable  chance  for  a  long  time  before  it 
becomes  well  established. 

It  will  not  likely  ever  be  popular  over  a  very  large  portion  of 
the  United  States.  It  is  well  adapted  to  parts  of  New  England, 
New  York,  Canada,  and  mountain  districts  farther  west  and 
south.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  one  of  the  five  grasses 
recommended  for  permanent  grass  lands  by  Mr.  De  Laune,  of 
England. 

ANTHOXANTHUM,    L.    SWEET  VEBKAL-GEAS8. 

Spikelets  1 -flowered,  narrow,  slightly  compressed,  crowded  into 

a  cylindrical  spike-like  panicle ;  rachilla  jointed  above  the  lower 

glumes,  often  hairy.     Glumes  6,  the  2  lower  persistent  below  the 

joint,  acute,  mucronate,  or  very  short  awnecl,  the  second  longer 

20 


164  SWEET  SCENTED    VERNAL    GRASS. 


SWEET  SCENTED  VERNAL  GRASS.  155 

than  the  others,  the  two  intermediate  glumes  much  shorter, 
empty,  narrow,  keeled,  with  an  awn  on  the  back  or  very  near  the 
base,  the  two  upper  glumes  much  shorter,  hyaline,  obtuse,  awn- 
less,  of  which  the  fifth  is  very  broad,  including  the  narrow 
1-nerved  sixth  (or  palea  ?)  and  the  flower;  other  palea  0. 
Stamens,  2.  Styles,  distinct,  with  long,  feathery  stigmas.  Cary- 
opsis  oblong,  included  by  the  inner  glumes,  free. 

Aromatic  or  sweet  scented  annuals  or  perennials,  with  flat 
leaves.  The  terminal  panicle  spike-like,  pedunculate,  dense  or 
rather,  loose,  with  many  very  short  dense  branches. 

Species,  four  or  five,  European. 

•  A.  odoratum,  L.  Sweet  Scented  Vernal  Grass. — A  rather 
slender,  erect  perennial,  1-2^  ft.  high.  Leaves  slightly  hairy, 
ligule  oblong,  obtuse,  blade  of  upper  leaf  about  1  in.  long? 
sheath  slightly  inflated.  Spike-like  panicle,  1^-3  in.  long, 
Spikelets  £-J  in.  long,  linear,  oblong.  First  glume  ovate,  acute, 
1-nerved,  half  as  long  as  the  second  which  is  3-nerved,  elliptical 
when  spread  out.  The  third  and  fourth  empty  glumes  emargi- 
nate,  obscurely  5-nerved  below  the  apex;  the  straight  awn  of  the 
former  above  the  middle,  projecting  \  its  length.,  The  twisted 
awn  of  the  latter  below  the  middle,  projecting  twice  the  length 
of  the  glume. 

Native  of  Europe,  widely  dispersed  in  temperate  Asia,  North 
America,  Australia,  often  sown  for  pastures  and  lawns. 

Sweet  scented  vernal  grass  is  a  pretty  name,  and  suggestive  of 
something  agreeable,  and  is  one  of  a  very  small  number  of  grasses 
which  possess  this  peculiar  odor.  The  grass  is  perennial,  with  a 
culm  one  to  two  feet  high.  It  starts  very  early  in  spring  and 
soon  flowers.  It  has  often  been  recommended  for  lawns  and 
pastures,  but  for  the  latter  purpose  some  of  the  best  farmers  of 

PIG.  73.-  -Anthoxanthum  odoratum,  L.  (Sweet  Vernal  Grass);  1.  plant;  a,  spikelet; 
h,  the  same  with  the  outer  glumes  removed  ;  c,  the  same  as  b  with  the  empty  glumes 
removed ;  d,  the  stamens  and  pistil ;  e,  the  pistil  with  one  style  removed ;  f,  one  of  the 
hairs  from  the  stigma.— (e,  /,  from  Kunth,  the  others  by  Scribner.) 


156  SWEET-SCENTED  VERNALr-GRASS. 

England  now  omit  sowing  this  grass.  Its  fragrance  when  wilted, 
bruised  or  dried,  is  its  chief  recommendation,  and  about  the  only 
one  for  its  use  on  the  lawn.  It  is  too  apt  to  kill  or  be  crowded 
out,  a  little  coarse,  bunchy,  and  uneven  for  a  velvet  and  elastic 
turf.  It  likes  rich,  moist  soil  and  cool  summers.  T.  M.,  in 
Treasury  of  Botany,  says:  "The  fragrant  resinous  principle 
which  occurs  in  this  grass,  and  is  called  coumarin,  is  a  widely 
diffused  natural  perfume,  being  found  in  the  Tonka  Bean,  the 
Faham  tea-plant,  the  sweet-wood-ruff,  melilotus,  and  the  blue  or 
Swiss  melilot." 

"  In  Northern  Michigan,  and  probably  in  other  places,  the  In- 
dians raise  this  grass  and  use  the  stems  for  mats,  card  baskets, 
and  other  small  articles.  It  is  sometimes  used  for  bonnets,  hats, 
and  bouquets.  The  culms  and  flowers  possess  the  strongest  per- 
fume, which  remains  for  a  long  time  after  drying."* 

"The  Italians,"  says  Dr.  Lindley,  "Are  said  to  employ  the 
distilled  water  as  a  perfume.'' 

The  writer  and  one  of  his  students  made  some  experiments  in 
feeding  sweet  vernal  when  in  flower.  A  young  horse  kept  on  dry 
feed,  preferred  fresh  June  grass  to  sweet  vernal,  but  ate  all  of 
both,  small  bunches. 

Some  meadow  foxtail  and  sweet  vernal  had  been  cut  in  flower, 
and  dried  for  some  days.  One  short-horn  cow  rather  preferred 
the  foxtail,  but  ate  both  readily.  Another  ate  both  alike,  another 
ate  the  foxtail  and  refused  the  sweet  vernal.  An  Ayrshire  cow 
ate  both  greedily  without  preference.  Two  of  the  farm  horses 
ate  both  alike,  while  a  third  preferred  the  foxtail,  but  ate  both 
readily.  The  cows  had  been  in  pasture  some  weeks,  the  horses 
had  been  kept  on  dry  feed. 

Gould  says :  "  It  is  nowhere  considered  a  very  valuable  species 
for  hay,  as  the  culms  are  wide  apart,  very  thin,  and  bear  but  few 
leaves ;  hence  it  gives  a  light  crop  of  hay,  at  best  not  over  three- 
quarters  of  a  ton  of  hay  from  an  acre.  The  seeds  are  not  very 


LOLIUM,  L.  157 

abundant,  nor  easy  of  acquisition.  Sheep  are  not  fond  of  it.  It 
was  once  thought  to  give  a  sweet  flavor  to  butter  and  to  mutton ; 
but  these  notions  are  now  exploded.  It  may  be  beneficial  medic- 
inally, as  cattle  will  eat  a  little  of  it  mixed  with  other  grasses, 
but  when  in  any  considerable  bulk  they  always  refuse  it." 

Baron  J.  B.  Lawessays:  "Upon  the  whole  this  grass  takes 
rank  somewhat  low  in  the  scale  of  the  better  grasses  for  perma- 
nent purposes.  The  growth  is  much  discouraged  by  highly 
nitrogenous  and  farm-yard  manures,  such  as  greatly  increased 
tho  amount  and  proportion  of  the  graminaceous  hay  plants,  as  a 
whole.  It  only  becomes  prominent  under  conditions  which  do  not 
induce  special  luxuriance  in  its  competitors,  and  it  seems  to  be 
more  injured  by  association  with  more  luxuriant  grasses  than  by 
the  direct  action  of  manures." 

The  seeds  are  sometimes  adulterated  with  those  of  Antliox- 
anthum  Puelii,  a  much  smaller  and  insignificant  plant,  which  is 
an  annual.  The  grass  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  is  extensively 
naturalized  in  North  America. 

LOLIUM,  L. 

Spikelets  many  flowered,  sessile,  distichous,  compressed  in  a 
simple  spike,  placed  with  one  edge  to  the  rachis.  Eachilla 
jointed  between  the  flowers;  flowers  perfect  or  rarely  imperfect. 
Empty  glumes,  firm,  5-7-nerved,  convex  on  the  back5  obtuse^ 
acute,  or  awned ;  the  empty  glume  next  to  the  rachis  wanting, 
except  in  the  terminal  spikelet.  Palea  shorter  than  the  floral 
glume,  narrow,  2-keeled.  Lodicules  ovate,  ciliate.  Stamens  3. 
Styles  distinct,  very  short,  stigmas  feathery,  Caryopsis  oblong, 
smooth,  adherent  to  the  palea.  Annuals  or  perennials,  with  flat 
leaves.  Spike  terminal,  elongated,  spikelets  nlaced  on  alternate 
sides  of  a  jointed  rachis. 

Species  about  20,  found  in  north  temperate  regions. 


FIG.  74. 


PERENNIAL   RYE   OR  RAY   GRASS,  DARNEL.  .  159 

«• 

L.  perenne,  L.  Perennial  Rye  or  Ray  Grass,  Darnel.- 

An  erect  or  slightly  decumbent  perennial,  1-3  ft.  hi.,  smooth, 
culm  slightly  compressed.  Leaves  flat,  shining;  ligules  short. 
Spike  4-10  in.,  slender.  Spikelets  8-16,  obtuse  or  pointed,  rarely 
awned,  %-$  in.  long.  Empty  glumes  strongly  ribbed,  linear- 
lanceolate,  floral  glume  linear-oblong.  In  the  terminal  spikelet 
the  second  glume  is  usually  empty. 

In  many  portions  of  moist,  temperate  Europe,  this  grass  has 
for  over  200  years  taken  the  rank  among  the  farmers  that  Timothy 
has  in  the  United  States.  Eye  grass  is  termed  a  perennial, 
though  it  can  hardly  be  relied  on  to  last  for  more  than  two  to 
five  years,  and  especially  after  one  seeding,  the  plants  mostly 
soon  perish.  Self-sown  seed,  ripening  on  the  ground,  help  supply 
a  continuous  crop  of  plants. 

It  sect's  bountifully,  frequently  producing  forty  bushels  or  more 
to  the  acre;  these  are  of  a  large  size  and  make  strong  plants  on 
a  great  variety  of  soils  soon  after  sowing.  The  stems  are  one  to 
two  or  even  three  feet  high,  including  the  straight  spike  at  the 
top,  giving  it  somewhat  the  aspect  of  quack  grass.  The  leaves 
are  abundant,  dark  green,  flat,  glossy,  succulent,  and  the  whole 
plant  is  nutritious. 

This  grass,  with  its  simple  spike,  is  easily  recognized,  and 
people  can  soon  become  acquainted  with  its  peculiarities.  Its 
short  life  and  vigorous  habit  make  it  a  grass  especially  suited  to 
alternate  husbandry,  and  not  for  permanent  pasture  or  meadow, 
although,  through  ignorance  and  long  precedent,  it  has  very 
generally  been  recommended  for  the  latter  purpose. 

The  plants  start  early,  flower  early,  and  repeatedly  during  the 
growing  season.  Seeds  are  cheap,  easily  obtained,  always  in 
market,  and  well  advertised  by  the  dealers.  Above  we  see  stated 

FIG.  74. — Lottum  perenne  (Perennial  Rye  Grass).  ",  Empty  glume  prilled  back  from 
the  rest  of  the  spikelet ;  7>,  floral  glume  cut  above  the  middle :  c,  d,  cross  sections  of 
floral  glume  and  palea ;  c,  spikelet  with  a  portion  of  rachis  of  L.  perenne  var.  It.nli- 
cum ;  /,  ovary  and  styles ;  /«,  cross  section  of  an  anther  with  a  few  grains  of  pollen. — 
(Sudworth.) 


160  PERENNIAL  RYE  OR  RAY- GRASS,  DARNEL. 

some  of  the  main  reasons  why  rye -grass  has  been  so  popular. 

Rye- grass  was  one  of  the  first  if  not  the  first  grass  ever  culti- 
vated in  Great  Britain,  as  long  ago  as  1677,  nearly  100  years 
before  the  cultivation  of  Timothy  or  orchard  grass. 

Owing  to  this  long  cultivation,  under  varying  conditions  of 
soil  and  climate,  as  we  should  expect,  the  grass'hus  broken  up  into 
many  varieties,  which  are  more  or  less  permanent  and  well 
marked. 

As  early  as  1823,  one  experimenter  pointed  out  sixty  varieties. 
A  few  of  these  became  permanent  enough  to  reproduce  them- 
selves quite  true  from  seed.  Soon  after  this,  a  few  of  these  races 
of  rye-grass  became  quite  noted  under  various  names,  such  as 
"Pacey's,"  "Russell's,"  "  Whitworth's,"  "Dixon's,"  and 
now  several  English  seedsmen  claim  extra  varieties  and  name 
them  after  some  member  of  their  firm. 

Mr.  Lawes  writes:  "It  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list  as  to 
the  quantity  in  culm.  It  is  obviously  a  plant  of  relatively  weak 
habit.  It  did  not  nourish  where  ammonia-salts  were  used,  but 
where  nitrogen  was  supplied  as  nitrate  of  soda,  it  was  much  more 
able  to  maintain  some,  though  still  a  rather  low  position  in  the 
struggle." 

Only  25  to  30  pounds  of  seed  are  required  to  sow  an  acre.  This 
grass  is  often  recommended  for  a  lawn,  but  owing  to  its  short 
life  in  most  places,  it  is  by  no  means  adapted  for  that  purpose. 

Rye-grass  has  been  quite  extensively  tested  in  various  portions 
of  the  older  States.  It  is  emphatically  a  lover  of  rich  land  and 
a  moist  climate^  without  very  great  heat.  In  many  portions  of 
the  interior  of  our  country.,  subject  to  great  extremes,  this  grass 
has  not  proved  of  much  value.  It  is  not  well  suited  to  the 
Southern  States,  especially  the  dryest  portions.  Further  remarks 
concerning  this  grass  may  be  found  on  a  later  page  of  this 
volume. 


ITALIAN  RYE  GRASS.  161 

Lolinm  perenne,  var.  Italicum.  Italian  Bye  Grass. — This 
is  one  of  the  most  distinct,  well  known,  and  valuable  of  the  per- 
manent varieties  of  rye  grass.  It  differs  from  the  species  in  having 
short  awns  to  the  spikelets.  It  is  larger  and  more  vigorous,  makes 
a  quicker  growth,  but  is  only  an  annual,  and  of  course  cannot  be 
relied  on  for  more  than  one  season.  Where  the  ground  is  favor- 
able, and  especially  if  irrigated,  it  produces  immense  crops  of 
valuable  feed  for  live  stock,  yielding  as  high  as  seven  and  a  half 
tons  of  dry  hay  per  acre.  For  this  crop  it  is  cut  four  or  five 
times.  The  seeds  are  sown  in  autumn  or  in  early  spring  at  the 
same  rate  as  that  of  rye  grass. 

As  was  said  on  a  former  page  of  this  work,  annual  grasses,  like 
rye,  and  rye  grass,  may  often  be  induced  to  live  for  two  years  or 
more  if  kept  cut  short  and  not  allowed  to  seed. 

For  most  parts  of  the  Northern  States,  however,  rye  grass 
perishes  with  the  cold  winters,  and  except  in  some  of  the  cooler 
and  more  moist  portions  of  our  country,  has  proved  of  little 
value.  It  will  make  little  growth  on  dry  ground. 

OYMTDOK.       PEES. 

Spikelets  small,  1-flowered,  sessile  on  one  side  of  a  flattish 
rachis,  alternately  2-ranked,  rachilla  jointed  above  the  empty 
glumes,  extended  into  a  small  stipe  beyond  the  flower,  flower 
perfect.  The  empty  glumes  persistent  or  deciduous,  slender, 
keeled,  acute,  or  obtuse.  The  floral  glume  broader  than  the 
empty,  glumes,  membranous,  ciliate,  keeled,  transversely  pilose 
near  the  apex,  awnless.  Palea  scarcely  shorter  than  the  floral 
glume,  hyaline,  2-nerved,  ciliate.  Stamens  3.  Styles  distinct, 
clothed  with  short  hairs.  Caryopsis  oblong,  smooth,  included, 
free. 

Perennials,  creeping  or  stoloniferous,  with  short,  narrow,  flat 
leaves.  Spikes  slender,  3-6.  digitate  at  the  apex  of  the  culm, 
straight,  erect,  or  spreading. 

Four  species  iu  warm  regions. 
21 


FIG.  75. 


C.  DACTYLON,  PERS.  BERMUDA  GRASS.  163 

C.  Dactylon,  Pers.  Bermuda,  Wire  or  Scutch  Grass. — Spikes 
3-5,  seldom  seeding,  but  spreading  rapidly  by  stout  rootstocks. 
This  grass  belongs  to  southern  Europe  and  to  many  other  warm 
climates,  and  is  a  perennial,  thriving  from  Michigan  southward. 
The  stems  are  low  and  come  from  extensively  creeping  root- 
stocks,  which  also  penetrate  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  three  to 
six  inches.  The  top  spreads  into  several  branches,  somewhat  re- 
sembling crab  grass,  an  annual  too  common  in  neglected  gar- 
dens. The  leaves  are  short. 

This  grass  is  said  to  be  celebrated  in  the  sacred  Vedas  as  the 
shield  of  India,  and  preserver  of  nations,  as  without  it  the  cattle 
would  perish. 

For  the  Northern  States  it  is  of  no  value,  starting  very  late  in 
spring,  with  the  leaves  barely  an  inch  high  when  meadow  foxtail 
is  in  flower,  but  for  permanent  pasture  in  warm  countries  it  is 
highly  prized,  standing  heat  and  dry  weather  remarkably  well. 
It  rarely  ripens  seed  in  the  United  States,  but  may  be  propa- 
gated by  washing  the  rootstocks,  running  them  through  a  cut- 
ting machine  and  then  sowing  broad-cast. 

Like  quack  grass,  it  is  a  terrible  pest  in  field  crops,  where  its 
deep,  stout  rootstocks  make  it  hard  to  kill.  Thorough  cultiva- 
tion will  kill;  if  not  pastured,  June  grass,  cow  peas,  or  other 
rapid  growing  plants  will  shade  and  choke  it  out. 

The  following  is  from  Killebrew:  "  In  the  South  it  has  been 
the  chief  reliance  for  pasture  for  a  long  time.  It  revels  on  sandy 
soils,  and  is  used  extensively  on  the  southern  rivers  to  hold  the 
levees  and  the  embankments  of  the  roads.  It  forms  a  sward  so 
tough  it  is  almost  impossible  for  a  plow  to  pass  through  it.  It 
will  run  down  the  sides  of  the  deepest  gully  and  stop  its  wash- 
ing. It  has  the  capacity  to  withstand  any  amount  of  heat  and 
droughts,  and  droughts  that  are  so  dry  as  to  check  the  growth  of 

FIG.  75.— Cvnodon  Dactylon  (Bermuda  Grass) ;  o,  Plant  with  rootstock ;  c,  dorsal 
view  of  spike ;  e,  front  view ;  /,  spikelet ;  d,  pistil  and  lodicules ;  b,  ligule.  (Rieshen- 
bach.) 


164  C.  DACTYLON,  PERS.    BERMUDA  GRASS. 

blue    grass    will    only    make    the    Bermuda    greener    and    more 
thrifty." 

Mr.  Elliott,  quoted  by  Professor  Phares,  says:  "The  cultiva- 
tion of  this  grass  on  the  poor  and  extensive  sand  hills  of  our 
middle  country  would  probably  convert  them  into  sheep  walks 
of  great  value." 

Here,  Professor  Phares  remarks:  "As  a  permanent  pasture 
grass,  I  know  no  other  that  I  consider  so  valuable  as  this,  after 
having  transplanted  it  from  near  the  mouth  of  Red  River  to  my 
present  residence  thirty-five  years  ago,  and  having  started  it  on 
hundreds  of  other  farms,  commons,  and  levees  for  a  longer  pe- 
riod. As  hay  this  grass  has  been  cured  and  held  in  high  esteem 
by  many  farmers  in  Mississippi  for  more  than  forty  years. 

"  It  does  not  bear  dense  shade,  but  grows  best  where  most 
exposed  to  the  intense  heat  of  the  sun.  To  make  good  pasture 
it  must  be  kept  well  trodden  and  grazed  to  keep  it  tender,  and 
to  suppress  other  objectionable  grasses  and  weeds.  To  make 
good  hay  and  the  largest  yield,  this  grass  must  be  mowed  fro"m 
three  to  five  times  every  summer.  Thus  briars,  broom  grass;  and 
other  weeds  are  also  repressed  and  prevented  from  seeding,  mul- 
tiplying, and  ruining  the  meadow.  Properly  managed  this  grass 
grows  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches  high.5" 

The  following  is  from  Howard's  Manual .  "  Upon  our  ordi- 
nary upland  I  have  found  no  difficulty  in  destroying  it,  by  close 
cultivation  in  cotton  for  two  years.  Work  the  land  in  the  dry, 
hot  months  of  summer.  When  not  pastured,  broom  grass  or 
briars  soon  destroy  it.  I  think  it  very  doubtful  whether  there  is 
an  acre  of  land  in  the  South  thoroughly  set  with  Bermuda  grass, 
that  is  not  worth  more  than  any  other  crop  that  can  be  grown  on 
it.  The  Bermuda  and  crab  grass  are  at  home  in  the  South. 
They  not  only  live,  but  live  in  spite  of  neglect,  and  when  petted 
and  encouraged,  they  make  such  grateful  returns  as  astonish  the 


O.  DACTYLON,  PRES.  BERMUDA  GRASS  165 

benefactor.     While  grazed,  neither  Lespedeza,  broom  sedge,  blue 
grass,  or  any  other  growth  will  oust  it.'* 

Sqme  accounts  are  given  of  very  large  crops  of  excellent  hay 
made  from  this  grass.  Although  short,  it  is  thick,  fine,  and 
heavy. 

The  following  is  from  Professor  Shelton,  of  Kansas: 
"  Bermuda  grass  has  been  quite  extensively  introduced  into 
Kansas  from  southern  Missouri  and  Arkansas  during  the  last 
two  or  three  years;  and  the  most  extravagant  claims  have  been 
made  for  it  by  interested  parties.  After  five  years'  experience 
with  this  grass  upon  a  considerable  scale  at  the  College  farm,  we 
have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  for  this  section,  and  we  are 
confident  generally  throughout  the  State,  these  claims  are  totally 
unfounded.  Bermuda  grass  has  shown  itself  with  us  to  be  quite 
worthless  either  for  hay  or  pastuie.  Of  all  the  tame  grasses  it  is 
the  latest  to  appear  in  the  spring,  and  the  lightest  frosts  cut  it 
off  level  with  the  ground.  Until  the  hot  weather  of  June  had 
set  in,  our  Bermuda  grass  showed  scarcely  a  sign  of  life  and 
growth.  But  even  then  the  amount  of  feed  which  it  furnishes 
is  quite  insignificant.  Moreover,  our  stock  of  all  kinds  showed 
no  great  fondness  for  it,  leaving  it  always  for  orchard  r^rass  grow- 
ing near  by.  We  are  confident  that  our  farmers  will  do  well  to 
keep  their  farms  clear  of  a  grass  which,  like  the  Bermuda  grass, 
lias  some  of  the  worst  qualities  of  the  most  pernicious  weeds." 

The  latest  is  from  Prof.  F.  A.  Gulley,  of  Mississippi:  "Blue 
grass,  white  clover,  and  orchard  grass  do  well  in  certain  places, 
but  our  best  grass  on  most  soils  is  Bermuda.  In  future,  on  the 
College  farm,  I  shall  plant  Bermuda  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
grasses,  except  on  rich  soil  in  small  pasture  lots  near .  the  barn. 
We  plant  it  like  corn  and  potatoes  in  strips  across  a  field,  where 
it  soon  spreads  and  will  remain  for  all  time  to  come,  worse  even 
than  quack  grass  for  persistence.  On  good  land  it  will  cut  two 
to  four  tons  of  nice  hay  per  acre  which  is  easily  cured.  It  fur- 


AGROPYRUM   REPENS,  BEATJV.  167 

nishes  a  good  deal  of  grazing  on  rather  poor  land,  and  grows  right 
along  through  summer,  when  "blue  grass  will  dry  out  entirely. 
It  is  improved  by  breaking  up  every  three  or  four  years,  and 
planting  a  crop 

"  I  am  beginning  to  believe  that  in  this  and  Johnson  grass,  we 
have  for  this  latitude,  for  hay  and  pasture,  two  plants  that  are 
not  excelled  by  anything  that  grows  in  the  north.  They  do  not 
fraternize  with  cotton,  so  planters  are  very  much  afraid  of  them." 

AGROPYRUM,    J.     GAERTN. 

Spikelets  many  flowered,  compressed,  sessile,  one  at  each  joint 
of  the  zigzag  rachis,  distichous,  placed,  with  one  side  to  the  rachis, 
flowers  perfect,  or  the  upper  ones  imperfect.  Empty  glumes 
narrower  than  the  floral  glume,  few  nerved ;  floral  glumes  firm, 
convex  on  the  hack,  5-7-nerved,  obtuse,  acuminate,  or  awned, 
the  upper  one  often  empty  or  enclosing  an  imperfect  flower. 
Palea  shorter  than  the  floral  glume,  2-keeled.  Lodicules,  ovate, 
entire,  ciliate,,  Stamens  3.  Styles  very  short,  distinct,  stigmas 
feathery,  subsessile.  Caryopsis  oblong,  grooved,  more  or  less 
hairy  at  the  apex,  adherent  to  the  palea  or  free.  Perennials  or 
annuals,  with  leaves  flat  or  convolute.  Spike  terminal. 

About  twenty  species  found  in  temperate  climates. 

A.  repens,  Beauv.,  (Triticum  repens,  L.)  Quack,  Quitch, 
Quick,  Twitch,  Couch^  Dog,  Scutch,  Rye,  Durfee,  Chandler, 
Witch,  Quake,  Squitch,  or  Fin's  Grass  or  Creeping  Wheat. 
— A  very  variable  perennial  with  long,  creeping  rootstocks. 
Culms  1-4  feet,  smooth,  glabrous.  Leaves  flat,  sheaths  terete, 
iigule  short,  spike  2-10  in.,  straight  or  curved,  spikelets  4-8  fld., 
f-1  in.  long.  Empty  glumes  5-7-nerved,  rigid,  cuspidate,  acute 
or  awned ;  floral  glumes  much  the  same,  with  an  awn  nearly  its 
length,  or  sometimes  awnless. 

This  grass  is  well  known  in  most  of  the  older  portions  of  our 

FIG.  7&. — Agropyrum  repemt  (Quack  grass) ;  part  of  a  plant ;  a,  lower  empty  glume : 
7 >,  upper  empty  glume;  c,  floral  glume ;  d,  palea ;  e,  lodicules,  including  the  base  or 
I'tatpens,  an  abortive  ovary  and  the  feathery  stigmas.— (Sud worth.) 


168  AGROPYRUM  REPENS,  BEAUV. 

country.  It  comes  from  Europe,  though  something  very  much 
like  it  is  common  on  the  great  western  plains,  where  it  affords  an 
excellent  pasture 

The  rootstocks  fill  the  soil,  and  much  resemble  those  of  June 
grass,  only  they  are  larger.  The  leaves  near  the  ground  much 
resemble  those  of  Timothy ;  the  stems  are  one  to  three  feet  high, 
and  each  is  terminated  by  a  slender  spike  from  two  inches  to  a 
foot  in  length.  It  seldom  produces  seed  till  the  plants  become 
somewhat  dwarfed  or  stunted  by  crowding  or  exhaustion  of  the 
soil. 

Gould  tells  the  truth  when  he  says :  "  The  farmers  of  the 
United  States  unite  in  one  continuous  howl  of  execration  against 
this  grass."  They  generally  dread  its  presence,  which  most  of 
them  are  ignorant  of  till  it  has  become  well  established,  often  in 
many  places  on  their  farms.  It  is  a  clean,  sweet  grass,  and  affords 
much  good  pasture.  In  good  soil,  if  not  too  old  and  crowded,  it 
will  cut  a  fine  crop  of  hay  of  excellent  quality,  not  surpassed  in 
value  by  that  of  Timothy. 

The  editor  of  the  Rural  New  Yorker  says :  "  It  will  endure 
the  severest  droughts  of  the  North ;  it  will  thrive  in  sandy  or 
clayey  soils ;  it  is  early  to  appear  in  the  spring ;  it  is  the  first  to 
carpet  a  field  with  green  after  it  has  been  mown  or  closely 
cropped ;  it  makes  a  compact  sod  for  the  door-yard  or  lawn,  and 
will  become  as  'velvety'  under  the  frequent  use  of  the  lawn- 
mower  as  the  bent  grasses,  red  top  or  poas.  Its  merits  are 
many.  We  do  not  know  of  any  true  grass  about  which  more 
may  be  said  in  its  praise.  The  great  fault  with  quack  is  that  it 
seems  to  be  too  much  of  a  good  thing.  A  field  recently  plowed 
for  corn  next  spring,  which  had  been  in  grass 'eight  years  or 
more,  was  nearly  all  quack — Timothy  having  disappeared  en- 
tirely, and  the  rest  forming  a  small  percentage  of  blue  grass  and 
red  top.  The  cultivation  which  we  shall1  give  the  corn  will  prac- 
tically subdue  the  quack  unless  the  next  summer  should  prove 


AGROPYRUM  REPENS,  BEAUV.  169 

unusually  wet,  so  that  when  Timothy  and  clover  are  again  sown 
upon  the  wheat  at  the  end  of  the  rotation  there  will  be  scarcely 
any  to  dispute  their  possession.  But  quack  would  reappear  in 
several  years  and  if  the  land,  as  in  the  above  case,  were  retained 
in  grass  for  six  years  or  more,  the  quack  would  again  largely 
predominate.  As  our  lands  are  sandy  with  gravelly  sub-soil, 
they  need  frequent  rains,  so  that  a  season  rarely  passes  without 
a  drought  of  lesser  or  greater  severity  prevailing.  It  is  then  that 
quack  is  easily  destroyed.  The  shallow  corn  cultivator,  always 
here  used,  exposes  the  quack  roots  to  the  parching  air  and  sun 
and  destroys  them.  Upon  this  farm  quack  is  a  blessing,  though 
perhaps  a  troublesome  one.  We  do  not  believe  there  is  another 
grass  which,  when  plowed  under,  will  furnish  a  greater  amount 
of  suitable  food  for  Indian  corn,  while  the  cultivation  given  for 
suppressing  its  summer  growth  is  no  more  than  that  which  a 
full  corn  crop  needs. 

"  Hence  it  is  that  any  disturbance  of  the  roots  during  wet 
weather,  or  when  the  ground  is  at  all  moist,  serves  as  much  to 
spread  the  plant  as  to  suppress  it.  These  rootstocks  grow  rap- 
idly and  persistently,  preferring  to  grow  through  any  permeable 
obstacle  rather  than  turn  aside." 

On  making  the  best  of  quack  grass,  the  Country  Gentleman 
says:  "When  hoed  crops  are  not  too  prominent  or  common, 
quack  is  not  so  bad.  It  is  neither  killed  by  drought,  hard  freez- 
ing, nor  close  feeding.  When  cut  early  it  makes  the  best  of  hay. 
Where  it  has  a  foothold,  docks,  thistles,  whiteweed,  and  other 
weeds  are  unable  to  put  in  an  appearance.  Land  intended  for 
permanent  fields  must  be  broken  often,  as  the  roots  form  such  a 
close  sod  it  soon  binds  out.  When  this  is  the  case,  plow  and 
harrow  well  every  third  or  fifth  year  after  cutting." 

In  the  same  paper  above  named,  Henry  Ivessays:  "There 
are  three  ways  to  manage  quack.  One  is  for  the  timid  man  who 
thinks  he  cannot  subdue  it,  and  who  works  accordingly.  He 
22 


170  AGROPYRUM   REPENS,    BEAUV. 

gives  it  just  about  tillage  enough  to  renovate  and  keep  it  thrifty. 
Another  way  is  to  cultivate  enough  to  get  a  very  good  crop  of 
something  else ;  a  third  way  is  to  kill  it  entirely.  To  do  this, 
many  summer  fallow  by  thorough  cultivation  all  summer ;  others 
plow  late  in  the  fall  and  next  spring  put  in  a  crop.  The  cheapest 
way  to  clear  land  from  quack,  is  to  plow  in  the  fall,  then  har- 
row in  the  spring,  cultivate  or  gang-plow  until  rather  a  late 
planting  time  for  corn,  then  plant,  when  the  corn  will  come  up 
quick,  cultivate  early  and  often.  It  cannot  be  killed  by  any 
process  of  raking  and  picking  it  oil  the  ground." 

As  to  the  mode  of  killing,  the  writer  has  often  tried,  with  ex- 
cellent success,  the  plans  named  by  the  last  writer.  Plow  late 
in  the  fall,  and  go  on  to  the  ground  as  soon  as  possible  after 
thawing  out — not  waiting  for  the  soil  to  settle.  Cultivate  well 
every  three  days  till  no  traces  are  seen,  which  will  usually  leave 
time  for  a  late  crop  of  potatoes,  corn,  or  rutabagas  in  the  same 

season.  It  must  not  bo 
allowed  a  breathing  spell, 
a s  it  then  recuperates 
rapidly.  Do  not  wait  for  a 
leaf  to  show  itself.  Give 
it  no  peace. 

It  thrives  in  the  South 
as  well  as  at  the  North. 

The  apex  of  a  rootstock 
is  quite  sharp  and  stout, 
and  not  unf requently 

Fia.   77.— Rootstock  of  quack  grass  which  has     grOWS    through    tubers    of 
grown  through  a  potato.      Reduced  one-third.— 
(Smlworth).  potato. 

SORGHUM,    PERS. 

Spikelets  in  threes,  panicled,  the  central  one  hermaphrodite,  ses- 
sile, 1-fld. ;  the  lateral  ones  pedicellate,  male  or  sterile,  with  some- 
times 1-3  pairs  of  spikelets  at  the  nodes  below.  Glumes  of  the 


S.  HALAPENSE,    L.,  JOHNSON  GRASS. 


171 


sessile  spikelet  4,  the  lower  larger  than  the  others,  empty,  lan- 
ceolate or  ovate,  hard  and  shining,  obscurely  nerved ;  the  sec- 
ond empty,  narrower,  keeled,  firm,  acute  or  awned ;  the  third 
much  smaller,  hyaline,  empty ;  the  fourth  or  floral  glume 
very  slender,  hyaline,  2-lobed,  awned.  Palea  minute  or  none. 
Stamens  3.  Styles  distinct,  stigmas  feathery.  Caryopsis  in- 
cluded, free.  Annuals  or  perennials,  often  tall  with  broad,  flat 
leaves,  panicle  terminal,  large.  Species  now  reduced  to  two. 
(S.  halapense  and  S.  vulgare).  Extensively  cultivated  in  warm 
and  temperate  climates. 

S.  halapense,  L.  Johnson  Grass,  Means'  Grass,  Cuoa 
Grass,  Egyptian  Grass,  Green  Yalley  Grass,  Arabian 
Millett,  Egyptian  Millett,  Syrian  Grass,  Saint  Mary's 
Grass. — From  several  sources  I  learn  that  in  1835  Gov.  Means  of 
South  Carolina  obtained  the  seed  from  Turkey.  A  few  years 
later  William  Johnson  of  Alabama  obtained  the  seed  of  the 
Governor,  and  was  quite  active  in  advertising  its  good  qualities, 
hence  the  popular  name  of  "Johnson  grass." 


FIG.  78.— ft-.  Portion  of  panicle  of  Sorghum  halapense,  L.;  Z>,  two  spikelets,  tho  other 
having  been  removed ;  c,  lower  spikelet  with  fertile  flower ;  d,  one  upper  spikelet 
with  Btaminatu  flower.  1  x6.— Sud worth) 


172  8.  HALAPENSE  L.,  JOHNSON  GRASS. 

It  has  sometimes  been  called  Guinea  grass,  though  this 
name  has  more  generally  been  applied  to  another,  Panicum  ju- 
mentorum. 

Johnson  grass  is  a  coarse  perennial,  with  large,  stout  root- 
stocks  often  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  These  penetrate  the 
ground  in  every  direction,  and  each  joint  may  send  up  a  stem 
after  the  manner  of  June  or  quack  grass,  only  on  a  much  larger 
scale. 

The  stems  are  three  to  six  or  more  feet  in  height,  and  are 
amply  supplied  Avith  long,  broad  leaves.  The  branching  panicle 
somewhat  resembles  that  of  barn-yard  grass.  For  the  Southern 
States  this  grass  has  been  highly  praised  by  some  and  tried  cau- 
tiously by  others.  It  bears  great  heat  and  severe  drought,  and 
may  be  cut  once  a  month  during  the  growing  season.  It  affords 
fine  pasture,  if  any  coarse  grass  can  be  said  to  furnish  such  a 
pasture,  and  the  rootstocks  furnish  food  for  swine  nearly  equal 
to  that  of  artichokes. 

As  might  be  expected,  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  turn  up 
these  rootstocks  with  a  plow ;  hence  it  is  difficult  to  eradicate, 
though  if  no  tops  are  allowed  to  grow,  the  parts  beneath  the 
ground  will  soon  become  exhausted  and  perish. 

Those  who  have  tried  it  say,  that  if  cut  in  blossom,  or  earlier, 
the  hay  is  most  excellent,  and  on  good  land  the  yield  is  enor- 
mous. 

Dr.  Phares  says:  "During  the  recent  long  drought  in  north- 
east Mississippi,  on  one  farm  at  least,  this  grass  was  mowed 
three  times;  and  on  the  first  of  October,  when  from  eight  to 
twelve  inches  high,  the  cattle  were  turned  in  it  and  there  re- 
mained feeding  and  fattening  on  its  abundant,  rich,  rapidly- 
growing  foliage  to  the  last  of  December." 

Prof.  F.  A.  Gulley  says:  "Johnson  grass  stands  first  in 
quantity  and  quality  for  permanent  meadow,  especially  on  rich, 
well-drained,  heavy  land.  This  and  Bermuda  for  the  South  are 


SETARIA,    BEAUV.  .          173 

equal  to  anything  at  the  North*.  It  is  improved  by  breaking  up 
once  in  a  while." 

Mr.  Montgomery,  of  the  same  state,  has  no  hesitancy  in  say- 
ing that  it  will  produce  more  nutritious  hay  per  acre  on  rich 
land  than  any  meadow  grass  we  can  grow.  To  insure  a  fine 
quality  of  hay  it  should  be  mowed  when  the  first  seed  stems  ap- 
pear. Overflows  and  standing  water  are  death  to  it.  A  good 
plan  to  propagate  this  grass  is  to  drop  roots  between  the  hills  of 
corn  and  cultivate  with  the  corn  crop. 

Here  follows  the  statement  of  Professor  Shelton,  of  Kansas: 
"  We  have  had  Johnson  grass  in  cultivation  upon  the  college 
farm  for  four  years,  and  every  year's  experience  with  it  makes 
its  total  worthlessness  the  more  conspicuous.  It  never  makes  its 
appearance  with  us  much  before  the  first  of  June,  and  the  first 
frost  in  the  -fall  cuts  it  even  with  the  ground.  During  the 
summer's  heat  it  makes  a  coarse,  scattering  growth  of  herbage 
which  our  cattle  persist  in  disliking.  I  notice  that  our  patch 
slowly  increases  in  size  from  scattering  seeds  and  rootstocks. 
You  can  safely  advise  your  readers  in  Kansas  and  the  southwest, 
to  keep  entirely  clear  of  Johnson  grass." 

Dr.  Vasey  says :  "  It  has  been  tried  in  Kansas  with  very 
promising  results.  Probably  no  grass  gives  better  promise  for 
the  dry  arid  lands  of  the  West." 

It  may  be  propagated  by  pieces  of  rootstocks  or  by  seeds. 
The  writer  has  tested  it  on  a  small  scale  in  Central  Michigan, 
but  many  of  the  rootstocks  are  killed  by  winter  while  a  few 
usually  remain.  It  has  produced  some  seed  even  in  the  coolest 
summers.  The  ^seeds  start  slowly,  and  no  sprouts  from  any 
source  appear  above  ground  till  the  weather  becomes  warm  and 
settled. 

SETARIA,    BEAUV.t 

Spikelets,  ovate,  jointed  with  the  persistent  pedicel,  which 
bears  one  to  many  bristles,  collected  into  a  cylindrical  spike-like 


FIG.  79. 


S.  ITALIC  A,  KUNTH,   HUNGARIAN   GRASS.  175 

or  narrow  panicle.  Glumes  4,  the  three  outer  membranous,  the 
lower  very  small,  the  second  shorter  than  the  third,  both  empty, 
the  third  usually  longer,  empty  or  rarely  inclosing  a  palea  or 
male  flower,  or  sterile;  the  terminal  inclosing  the  perfect  flower, 
shorter,  obtuse,  indurated  as  well  as  the  inclosed  palea,  shining 
or  transversely  wrinkled,  or  simply  dotted  in  lines.  Stamens  3. 
Styles  distinct  from  the  base,  elongated,  stigmas  feathery.  Cary- 
opsis  included  in  the  hard  floral'glume  and  palea,  free.  Annual 
grasses,  often  tall  with  flat  leaves.  Panicle  terminal.  Species 
about  ten,  found  in  tropical  and  temperate  climates. 

S.  Italica  Kunth,  Hungarian  or  Bengal  Grass,  German, 
Italian,  Mammoth,  Golden  or  Cat-tail  Millet. — A  stout,  quick- 
growing  grass,  2-3-g-  ft.  hi.,  with  numerous  broad,  flat  leaves  and 
a  nodding  panicle  4-9  in.  long  by  f-1^  in.  in  diameter.  Bristles 
two  or  three  in  a  cluster. 

'The  term  "  Millet  "  is  also  applied  to  various  other  species  of 
plants,  and  is  about  as  indefinite  as  the  name  "blue  joint"  or 
"bunch  grass"  or  "pigweed." 

The  variety  of  millet  which  is  principally  grown  as  a  hay  crop 
in  America  was  distributed-  through  the  United'  States  Patent 
Office  in  1854  under  the  name  of  Panicum  Germanicum.  There 
are  many  races,  which,  like  those  of  Indian  corn,  are  mixed 
up  in  hopeless  confusion.  It  is  much  'cultivated  in  the  West  and 
Southwest. 

The  millets  are  among  the  most  ancient  of  cultivated  grains, 
as  is  evinced  by  the  variability  in  the  species  as  well  as  by  ancient 
mention,  and  their  wide  distribution.  It  is  said  that  a  third  part 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe  feed  upon  the  different  millets, 
especially,  in  Africa,  Turkey,  Persia,  India,  and  Japan.  It  is 
mentioned  by  Pliny  as  one  of  the  cereals  of  his  time.  Setaria 
Italica  has  an  Asiatic  origin  and  a  high  antiquity,  as  is  evinced 


FIG.  79.- Setaria  Italicn.  (Hungarian  Grass) ;  a,  portion  of  plant;  ft,  spikelet  with 
the  pedicel  of  a  second ;  «,  another  view;  c,  fertile  floret  showing  palea;  d,  dorsal 
view  of  saint:.— (a  Redrawn  from  Trinius,  />,  c.  and  d,  Scribner). 


176  S.    ITALICA,  KUNTH,    HUNGARIAN  GRASS. 

by  its  Sanscrit  name  "kangu"  and  "  priyangu. "  In  the  old 
world  one  variety  is  grown  on  watered  land,  another  in  palm 
gardens,  and  another  in  dry  fields. 

The  seeds  of  this  or  another  species  are  even  now  sold  in  Lon- 
don shops  as  a  substitute  for  rice  in  making  puddings.  It  re- 
quires a  dry,  light,  warm  land  or  medium  soil  for  its  best  pro- 
duction, and  has  a  remarkable  power  of  resisting  drought.  It  will 
not  grow  till  the  weather  becomes  settled  and  warm.  It  is  sensitive 
to  cold  and  is  a  shallow  feeder,  and  will  bear  crowding  without 
injury.  Its  seeds  will,  germinate  under  conditions  of  consider- 
able dryness. 

When  cut  it  parts  with  its  moisture  very  slowly,  and  cures  into 
hay  with  difficulty. 

When  forced  to  grow  fine  through  crowding,  and  grown  on 
rich  and  suitable  land,  this  plant  makes  from  three  to  four  or 
even  five  tons  of  fine-appearing  fodder,  sweet-smelling  if 'cut 
early  and  properly  cured,  and  is  relished  by  stock.  If  cut  early  it 
is  certainly  quite  equal  to  ordinary  hay.  If  grown  thinly  the 
forage  is  coarse,  and  is  not  so  well  relished  by  animals.  If  not 
cut  early  its  value  is  greatly  impaired.  After  the  seed  is  ripe  it 
is  said  to  be  unhealthy  for  horses.  It  is  ready  for  hay  when  the 
heads  begin  to  appear  generally  over  the  field.  One  bushel  of 
seed  is  sown  to  the  acre,  broadcast,  or  less  when  sown  in  drills. 
Sow  only  on  rich  land. 

Its  rapidity  of  growth  in  six  or  seven  weeks  after  sowing, 
shows  its  availability  as  a  catch  crop  in  case  there  is  a  failure  of 
the  hay  crop.  As  it  is  a  shallow  feeder  it  is  well  adapted  for 
surface  manuring. 

The  previous  account  is  selected  and  adapted  from  an  article 
by  Dr.  E.  Lewis  Sturtevant  in  The  National  Live  Stock  Journal, 
p.  522,  1881. 

Dr.  Armsbysays:  "The  chemist  gives  it  about  the  compo- 
sition of  fair  meadow  hay.  It  is  deficient  in  protein  and  rich  in 


DEYEUXIA,   CLARION.  m 

non-nitrogenous  nutrients,  and  should  be  supplemented  with  oil 
cake." 

Major  H.  E.  Alvord,  of  Mass.,  in  the  Rural  New  Yorker, 
speaks  as  follows:  "  Hungarian  grass  is  a  valuable  auxiliary. 
Where  a  piece  of  grass  or  grain,  which  looks  well  in  the 
autumn  or  even  in  early  spring,  shows  in  May  that  it  will  not 
produce  a  profitable  crop,  its  fragments  may  be  depended  upon 
to  do  most  good  as  green  manure.  Then  plow  late  in  May, 
turning  well,  harrow  two  or  three  times  at  intervals,  sow 
Hungarian  grass  the  latter  part  of  June,  cut  it  in  August 
and  re-seed  the  land.  Hungarian,  according  to  age  at  har- 
vesting, may  be  adapted  to  any  class  of  stock.  It  makes  quite 
a  draft  on  the  land,  and,  either  when  it  is  sown  or  with  the  fol- 
lowing crop,  a  dressing  of  cheap  fertilizer  is  no  more  than  fair, 
like  agricultural  salt,  kainit,  or  the  raw  ground  Carolina  phos- 
phate. Knowledge  of  the  facts  in  every  case  must  determine 
what  can  be  most  economically  used." 

Waldo  F.  Brown,  of  Ohio,  in  the  same  paper,  writes:  "In  a 
season  when  wheat  and  clover  have  been  generally  killed  over  a 
large  area  of  country,  many  farmers  are  asking  what  can  we  sub- 
stitute for  hay?  We  have  two  good  substitutes — millet  and  corn 
fodder.  Either  maybe  put  in,  in  this  latitude,  as  late  as  June  10, 
with  a  good  prospect  of  a  crop.  Millet  will  yield  largely  on  good 
land,  but  the  land  should  be  finely  pulverized.  It  is  best  to  sow  as 
soon  after  a  rain  as  the  land  can  be  worked,  as  if  sown  just  before  a 
rain  there  is  more  danger  of  weeds  coming  up  with  it.  The 
seed  should  be  covered  lightly,  and  I  prefer  a  plank  drag  for 
the  purpose,  as  it  presses  the  earth  to  the  seed,  and  retains  the 
moisture  till  it  sprouts.  When  sown  for  hay,  from  three  pecks 
to  a  bushel  of  seed  per  acre  should  be  used." 

UEYEUXIA,    CLARION. 

Spikelets   1-fld.    in  a  close  or  open  panicle,  rachilla  jointed 
ftbove  the  lower  glumes,  often  extending  beyond  the  floret  into  a 
23 


I).  (CALAMAGROSTIS,)  CANADENSIS,  BEAUV.  179 

bristle-like  or  smooth  rudiment  of  a  flower ;  flower  perfect.  The 
empty  glumes  persistent  below  the  joint,  slightly  unequal,  awn- 
less,  keeled,  membranous;  the  floral  glume  often  with  a  ring 
of  hairs  at  the  base,  5-nerved,  entire  or  2-4-toothed,  bearing  a 
short  awn  on  the  back.  Palea  slender,  2-nerved,  thin.  Stamens 
3.  Styles  distinct,  short,  stigmas  feathery.  Caryopsis  obovoid 
or  oblong,  often  oblique,  included  by  the  slender  flowering  glume 
and  the  palea,  free,  or  slightly  adherent. 

Grasses  with  various  habits.  Panicle  terminal.  Nearly  re- 
lated to  Agrostis. 

About  120  species  in  temperate  and  cold  regions. 

D.  (Calamagrostis,)  Canadensis,  Beauv.  Blue  Joint — 
A  perennial  with  creeping  rootstocks,  found  in  low  grounds, 
3-6-ft.  high.  Leaves  flat,  glaucous.  Panicle  open,  2-6  in. 
Spikelets  purplish  with  the  rachilla  continued  behind  the 
palea  as  a  short,  hairy  pedicel.  Empty  glumes,  ovate,  lauceolate, 
acute,  the  upper  with  an  obscure  nerve  each  side  the  middle  one. 
Hairs  numerous,  as  long  as  the  floral  glume,  which  bears  a 
very  slender,  straight  awn  near  the  middle.  Palea  hyaline,  two- 
thirds  as  long  as  its  glume. 

This  native  perennial  grass  is  widely  distributed  in  the  marshes 
of  the  Northern  States  clear  across  the  continent,  where  it  at- 
tains a  height  of  four  to  six  feet  or  more.  The  narrow  panicle 
somewhat  resembles  that  of  red  top,  only  it  is  more  slender. 

Unfortunately,  the  common  name  is  a  very  indefinite  one,  as 
many  other  and  widely  different  grasses  in  various  parts  of  our 
country  have  been  called  "blue  joint."  It  is  not  much  culti- 
vated, but  is  quite  common,  and  if  cut  rather  early,'  while  in« 
flower,  or  sooner,  it  affords  a  very  large  yield  of  good  hay.  Blue 
joint  will  grow  on  land  rather  too  wet  for  red  top,  and  for  such 
places,  if  they  cannot  be  drained,  we  know  of  no  grass  more 
suitable  for  cultivation. 

FJG.  80.  Deyeuzia  Canadensis  (Blue  Joint):  a,  upper  part  of  a  plant;  b,  empty 
glumes ;  c,  d.  back  of  same ;  e,  floral  glume,  palea  to  the  left,  and  at  base  a  rudiment, 
of  a  floret ;  /,  ovary  and  styles.— (Sudworth). 


MUHLENBERGIA,  SCHREB.  181 

The  seeds  are  quite  small  and  some  time  is  required  for  the 
grass  to  become  well  established. 

Concerning  this  grass,  Gould  says:  "  It§  constitutes  about 
one-third  of  the  natural  grasses  on  the  beaver  dam  meadows  of 
the  Adirondacks.  It  is  certain  that  cattle  relish  it  very  much 
both  in  its  green  state  and  when  made  into  hay,  and  it  is  equally 
certain  that  farmers  who  have  it  on  their  farms  believe  it  to  be 
one  of  the  best  grasses  in  their  meadows." 

MUHLENBERGIA.    SCHREB. 

Spikelets  1-flowered,  small,  panicled,  flowers  perfect.  Glumes 
3,  the  two  lower  empty,  persistent  below  the  joint,  membranous 
or  hyaline,  equal  or  oftener  unequal,  sometimes  minute,  or  one 
of  them  wholly  wanting,  keeled,  acute,  mucronate,  or  rarely 
short  or  long  awned.  The  floret  with  a  minute  callus  or  sessile, 
usually  bearded  at  base.  The  floral  glume  3-5-nerved,  firm 
or  membranous,  obtuse,  acute,  mucronate,  or  very  often  bearing 
a  slender  awn.  Palea  hyaline,  included,  2-keeled.  Lodicules  2, 
very  small.  Stamens  usually  3.  Styles  distinct,  stigmas  plu- 
mose. Caryopsis  narrow,  subterete,  inclosed  by  the  floral  glume, 
free. 

Grasses  of  various  habits.  Panicles  terminal  and  axillary, 
narrow  and  slender,  loose  and  branching,  dense  or  spike-like, 
spikelets  small,  slender. 

About  60  species,  mostly  North  American,  a  few  found  in  the 
Andes  and  Asia. 

M.  glomerata,  Trin,  Muhlenberg's  Grass,  Satin  Grass, 
"Wild  Timothy. — Culms  erect,  glancous,  1-3  ft.  high,  branched, 
or  rarely  simple.  Panicle  spike-like,  dense,  excerted,  2-3  in. 
often  lead  colored,  glumes  awned,  nearly  equal.  Common  north- 
ward in  bogs,  or  at  the  west  on  dryer  land. 

FIG.  81.  Muhlenbergin  tjlnmerata ;  a,  plant ;  /),  spikelet ;  c,  floret ;  (U.  S.  Agricult- 
ural Department  and  Scribner). 


182  M.  GLOMERATA,  TRIN.,   MUHLENBERG'S  GRASS. 

The  following  is  by  Dr.  C.  E.  Bessey,  now  of  Lincoln,  Ne- 
braska : 

"Ten  or  twelve  years  ago  I  had  my  attention  first  called  to 
this  wild  grass  as  one  possessing  many  valuable  qualities,  making- 
it  desirable  for  introduction  and  cultivation.  I  found  that  the 
liverymen  of  central  Iowa  were  in  the  habit  of  cutting  those  parts 
of  the  prairie  which  lie  between  the  sloughs  and  the  high  land. 
The  hay  obtained  from  these  places  was  of  fine  quality,  being 
composed  of  leafy,  branching  stems  of  fine  length  and  medium 
hardness.  It  was  always  cut  late,  but  even  then  it  was  not  often 
in  seed.  In  fact,  the  rarity  of  the  seeding  is  so  great  that  I  have 
heard  it  averred,  over  and  over  again,  that  it  is  a  seedless  grass. 
Of  course  this  was  an  error,  as  all  grasses  are  seed-bearing  at 
some  stage  or  other  of  their  existence.  In  fact,  it  appears  to 
seed  freer  under  cultivation  than  in  the  wild  state. 

"  So  much  for  this  grass  in  a  general  way.  As  to  common 
name,  I  find  no  uniformity  whatever.  It  is  known  here  and 
there  under  many  different  names.  For  example,  in  some  places 
it  is  known  as  Nimble  Will ;  in  others  as  Limber  Billy  names 
which  in  other  regions  again  are  entirely  unknown  or  applied  to 
entirely  different  grasses.  I  have  heard  it  called  Fine  Slough 
grass,  a  misnomer,  HS  it  does  not  grow  in  genuine  sloughs  at  all. 
Again,  the  name  of  Small  Willow  Top  is  occasionally  heard, 
although  not  confined  to  this  grass  alone.  .In  the  books,  all  the 
Muhlenberg  grasses  are  called  drop-seed  grasses,  a  name  which 
cannot  be  expected  to  come  into  general  use.  In  reports  it  is 
often  spoken  of  as  simply  fine  prairie  grass,  which  is,  to  say  the 
least,  exceedingly  vague.  . 

"  The  name  I  have  used — Muhlenberg  grass — is  one  which  I 
think  wo  might  well  adopt,  in  honor  of  the  discoverer,  old  Dr. 
Muhlenberg,  a  botanist  of  the  last  century,  who  did  much  to 
bring  before  the.  world  the  natural  resources  of  this  country. 
Now  it  is  curious  that  although  this  grass  has  been  known  in  the 


M.  GLOMERATA,  TRIN.,  MUHLENBERG'S  GRASS.     183 

West  for  many  years  as  a  valuable  wild  one,  there  are  to  be  found 
scarcely  any  references  to  its  value  in  published  books  or  reports 
to  which  I  have  access.  Flint,  in  his  great  and  valuable  workr 
'Grasses  and  Forage  Plants,'  describes  it  and  then  remarks, 
'  Of  no  agricultural  value.'  Dr.  Darlington,  in  his  book,  'Amer- 
ican AVeeds  and  Useful  Plants,'  does  not  even  mention  it;  but 
in  reference  to  a  closely-allied  species  he  says:  'It  affords  an 
indifferent  pasture  in  the  latter  part  of  summer;  but  it  is  not  of 
much  worth.'  Dr.  Killebrew  does  not  mention  it  in  his  book, 
'Grasses,  Meadows  and  Pastures.'  Dr.  Vasey,  in  'The  Agri- 
cultural Grasses  of  the  United  States,'  says,  'Specimens  have 
been  sent  from  Colorado  and  Kansas  and  recommended  as  an  ex- 
cellent grass  for  hay.' 

"  Now,  chemical  analyses  show  that  Muhlenberg  grass  is  highly 
nutritious.  In  the  years  1878  and  1879,  at  mv  suggestion,  Mr. 
W.  K.  Robbins,  a  graduate  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College, 
made  analyses  of  this  grass,  with  results  which  showed  that  in 
nutritiousness  it  ranked  with  red  top  and  blue  grass,  and,  in 
some  instances,  Timothy.  More  recent  analyses  by  the  govern- 
jnent  chemist  at  Washington  make  a  still  better  showing.  Tak- 
ing an  average  of  the  analyses  I  find  the  following  results : 

"  Timothy  contains  4J  per  cent  of  albuminoids. 

"Orchard  grass  contains  6-^  per  cent  of  albuminoids. 

"  Red  top  contains  6f  per  cent  of  albuminoids. 

"  Blue  grass  contains  8  per  cent  of  albuminoids. 

"Muhlenberg  grass  contains  17  2-5  per  cent  of  albuminoids. 

"  That  is,  Muhlenberg  grass  is  more  than  twice  as  nutritious, 
weight  for  weight,  as  blue  grass.  It  is  nearly  three  times  as  nu- 
tritious as  red  top  and  orchard  grass,  and  about  four  times  as 
nutritious  as  Timothy.  Now  I  would  not  for  a  moment  be  un- 
derstood as  considering  these  analyses  as  settling  the  relative 
merits  of  these  grasses.  It  is  well  known,  however,  that  the 
analysis  of  a  grass  is  one  of  the  important  factors  in  determining 


FIG.  82. 


MUHLENBERGIA  MEXICANA,  TRIN.  185 

its  value,  and  I  bring  it  in  here  as  simply  corroborating  what  the 
feeders  of  hay  have  been  saying  for  a  long  time." 

Muhlenbergia  Mexicana,  Trin. — Culms  ascending,  branch- 
ing, 2-3  feet  high ;  lateral  panicle  often  included  at  base,  linear, 
interrupted  ;  glumes  awnless.  sharp-pointed,  unequal. 

It  is  quite  luxuriant,  thrives  in  the  shade,  and  stands  drought 
well. 

Dr.  Bessey  also  speaks  well  of  this  grass  as  well  as  of  the  pre- 
ceding, for  Iowa  and  Nebraska. 

Rewrites:  ''When  I  called  Prof.  Budd's  attention  to  it  he 
said  that  he  grew  a  three  acre  lot  of  it  for  four  years,  and  that  it 
yielded  from  2-j- 3  tons  per  acre  of  hay  of  the  highest  quality. 
This  agrees  with  other  testimony.  In  fact,  I  have  for  the  last  ten 
years,  from  time  to  time,  called  attention  to  its  value  in  the 
papers  of  this  State.'' 

If  these  species  are  as  valuable  as  the  above  notes  indicate, 
most  likely  several  other  species  of  the  same  genus  are  also  valu- 
.able.  The  very  small  size  of  the  seed  and  its  slow  growth  when 
small,  would  make  it  unprofitable  for  alternate  husbandry. 

PEKNISETUM,    PEES. 

Spikelets  ovate  or  ovate-lanceolate,  with  one  perfect  flower,  and 
a  second  male  or  neutral  one  below,  solitary,  or  2-3  together, 
closely  surrounded  by  an  involuce  of  bristles  which  are  attached 
above  the  joint.  Glumes  4,  rarely  3,  the  lower  small  or  0,  the 
second  often  equaling  the  spikelet,  both  empty ;  the  third  empty 
or  including  a  palea  or  staminate  flower ;  the  terminal  one  shorter, 
including  a  perfect  or  pistillate  flower,  firmer  than  the  palea. 
Stamens,  3.  Styles  distinct  at  the  base  or  united  for  more  or 
less  of  their  length,  stigmas  feathery  with  short  or  long  branches. 
Cariopsis  included,  free.  Annuals  or  perennials,  often  branch- 


FIG.  82.— MuMenberniaaylvatica,—  I,  Top  of  a  plant;    2,  spikelet.    A  grass  of  value 
in  some  localities.— <U.  S.  Agricultural  Department  and  Scribner). 

24 


P.  SPICATUM.  PEARL   MILLET.  187 

ing.  Leaves  flat.  Spikelet.s  crowded  in  a,  spike-like  panicle,  or 
on  spike-like  branches. 

Species  abont  40,  mostly  African,  a  few  in  tropical  Asia  and 
America: 

P.  spiral  ii  m .  Pearl,  Indian,  African,  Cat-tails,  or  Horse 
Millet. — This  grass  has  been  spoken  of  very  highly  as  a  meadow 
grass  for  the  South,  where  it  has  been  grown  for  many  years.  It 
needs  an  abundance  of  heat,  rich  soil,  and  makes  a  rank,  rapid 
growth  six  or  eight  feet  high,  each  culm  teminating  in  a  stiff 
spike  an  inch  in  diameter  and  six  to  twelve  inches  in  length. 
Branches  come  out  in  abundance  near  the  ground,  hence  there 
will  be  all  states  of  advancement  in  the  spikes  of  flowers.  As 
said  of  Panicum  Texanum  (Texas  Millett)  and  Sorghum  liala- 
pense  (Johnson  grass),  it  may  be  cut  two  or  three  times  a  year, 
and  yield  an  abundant  crop  of  rather  coarse  hay.  It  cures  slowly. 
In  central  Michigan,  where  it  has  been  tried,  the  summers  are 
too  cool  for  perfecting  seed,  and  the  crop  does  not  become  large 
till  "late  in  the  season.  Indian  corn  is  certainly  preferable  for 
the  North,  and  perhaps  as  suitable  for  the  South. 

PANICUM,  L. 

Spikelets  born  on  a  jointed  pedicel,  spikelets  racemed  or  pan- 
icled,  with  one  perfect  terminal  flower,  and  usually  a  second 
which  is  male  or  neutral.  Glumes  usually  4,  the  lowest  small  or 
minute,  the  second  and  third  usually  sub-equal,  membranous, 
awnless  or  rarely  awned,  empty  or  the  third  including  the  rudi- 
ment of  a  palea  or  a  male  flower ;  the  terminal  including  a  per- 
fect flower,  shorter  and  more  obtuse'  than  the  others,  carioceous, 
as  is  also  the  included  palea.  Lodicules,  2,  fleshy.  Stamens,  3. 
Styles  distinct  or  united  at  the  base  for  a  short  distance,  stigmas 
feathery.  Caryopsis  included  in  the  firm  floral  glume  and  palea, 
free.  Annuals  or  perennials  of  various  habits. 

FIG.  83. — Pennixetum  xpicatum  (Pearl  millet);  a,  top  of  a  plant  with  a  spike  reduced 
one-half;  />,  a  pair  of  spikelets  on  the  short  hairy  pedicel,  with  bristly  incolucre  ;  c, 
view  of  one  spikelet ;  d,  another  view.— (Scribner). 


FtQ.  84 


P.  TEXANUM,  BUCKL.  TEXAS  MILLET.  189 

About  250-280  species,  widely  scattered   over  the  earth.     A 
large  ami  difficult  genus. 
P.  Texannni,  Buckl.  Texas  Millet,  Texas  Panic  Grass.— 

A  leafy  annual,  2-5  ft.  high,  sparingly  branched.  Leaves  6-8x 
•J-l  in ;  soft  with  rough  margins.  Panicle  6-8  in.  long,  narrow, 
erect,  spikelets  oblong,  pointed.  Lower,  empty  glume  half  as  long 
as  the  second,  acute,  5-nerved.  The  upper  glume  5-7  nerved. 
The  floral  glume  transversely  wrinkled. 

For  most  of  the  following  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  G.  Vasey. 
This  grass  is  a  native  of  Texas.  It  is  a  grass  of  rapid  growth, 
succulent,  yielding  a  large  amount  of  forage. 

Mr.  Pryor  Lea,  of  Texas,  after  trying  it  for  some  years,  con- 
siders it  superior  to  any  grass  that  he  ever  saw  for  hay.  It  is  a 
much  more  certain  crop  than  millet,  and  cultivated  with  less 
labor,  and  all  kinds  of  stock  prefer  it.  It  prospers  best  in  the 
Avarmest  season  of  the  year. 

A.  W.  Ravenel,  of  S.  0.,  has  tried  Texas  millet  for  several 
years,  and  esteems  it  very  highly. 

Dr.  Phares,  of  Mississippi,  says:  "In  habit  it  is  much  like 
crab  grass,  which  is  inclined  to  crowd  out  this  millet." 

Prof.  S.  B.  Buckley,  of  Texas,  says :  "  It  grows  thick  and  very 
rapidly,  one  or  two  months  being  sufficient  to  bring  it  to  maturity 
for  hay.  It  thrives  best  on  the  Colorado  bottom  lands,  yet  I 
have  seen  it  growing  on  poor  upland  soil,  but  it  was  dwarfed  at 
least  one-half.  It  may  be  cut  twice  or  three  times  a  year." 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  this  grass  promises  nothing  for  the 
northern  United  States. 

AVENA,   L. 

Spikelets  2-flowered,  very  rarely  1-flowered,  panicled,  rachilla 
jointed  between  the  flowers,  lower  flowers,  at  least,  perfect,  the 
upper  often  male  or  imperfect.  Empty  glumes  persistent  below 

FIG.  84.— Panicum  Taxanum  (Texas  Millet);  numbers  .7,  2,  top  of  a  plant ;  3,  dorsal 
view  of  spikelet ;  4,  front  view ;  5,  side  view ;  6,  floral  glume ;  7,  side  view  of  floral 

Klume  mid  palea.— (U.  S.  Agricultural  Department,  details  by  Scribner). 


A.  FLAVESCENS,  L.,  GOLDEN  OAT-GRASS.  191 

the  joint,  membranous,  slightly  unequal.  Floral  glumes  con- 
vex on  the  back,  acute,  5-9-nerved,  often  briefly  2-fid  at  the  apex, 
the  lower  ones  including  a  perfect  flower  and  bearing  on  the  back 
a  twisted  awn,  the  upper  ones  awnless,  including  a  staminate  or 
neutral  flower.  Palea  narrow,  2-toothed  or  2-fid.  Lodicules 
2-fid.  Stamens,  3.  Styles  short,  distinct,  stigmas  hairy.  Cary- 
opsis  oblong  or  long-fusiform,  pubescent  or  rarely  smooth,  some- 
times deeply  grooved,  included  by  the  floral  glume  and  palea, 
free  or  more  or  less  adhering  to  the  palea.  Annuals  or  perennials. 

Species  about  40.     Found  in  many  temperate  regions. 

A.  flavescens,  L.  Yellow  Oat,  or  Golden  Oat-Grass. — An 
erect,  smooth,  glabrous  perennial,  culm  1—2  ft.  hi.,  stoloniferous. 
Leaves  flat,  sheaths  hairy ;  ligule  truncate,  ciliate.  Panicle  open, 
branches  in  4-  whorls.  Spikelets  compressed  £  in.,  3-4  fld.,  shin- 
ing, yellowish.  Empty  glumes  ovate,  acuminate.  Floral  glumes 
keeled ;  awns  divergent. 

According  to  Baron  Lawes,  it  is  tufted,  of  rather  weakly  habit, 
the  culms  few  and  slender,  producing  flowers  in  June  and  July. 
It  is  found  in  cool,  dry  pastures  and  light  soils.  It  is  hardy  and 
•seeds  early,  is  never  sown  alone,  but  is  recommended  as  a  minor 
ingredient  with  others  for  permanent  pasture. 

The  seed  is  very  often  adulterated  with  seeds  of  Aira  flexuosa, 
which  is  not  worth  raising.  - 

I  have  seldom  seen  yellow  oat  grass  in  the  pastures  of  the 
United  States,  and  on  trying  it  for  several  years  in  Michigan,  I 
am  compelled  to  say  that  it  seems  to  promise  little  for  this 
country. 

HOLCUS,    L. 

Spikelets  2-fld.,  usually  in  collected  dense  oblong  or  interrupted 
panicles,  rachilla  jointed  above  the  empty  glumes,  extending 
beyond  the  flowei's  as  a  small  stipe;  lower  flower  perfect,  the 


FIG.  85.— Avena  flavexcenx  (Yellow  Oat  Grass).    <«,  A  short  i»lant.— (Sutton) ;  a,  spike- 
let.  -tScribner). 


FIG.  86. 


H.  LANATUS   L.,  MEADOW  SOFT  GRAS&  193 

Tipper  male.  Empty  glumes  persistent  below  the  joint,  keeled, 
the  lower  1-nerved,  acute  or  acuminate,  the  second  broader, 
3-nerved,  acute  or  awned.  Floral  glumes  shorter  than  the 
empty  ones,  membranous,  the  lower  awnless,  at  length  firm, 
including  a  perfect  flower,  the  upper  quite  similar,  but  including 
a  staminate  or  neutral  flower,  and  bearing  on  its  back  a  slender 
curved  awn.  Palea  narrow,  2-keeled.  Lodicules  oblique,  acumi- 
nate. Stamens  3.  Styles  distinct,  stigmas  feathery.  Caryopsis 
oblong,  included  by  the  firm  glume,  free.  Soft  annuals  or 
perennials.  Leaves  flat  or  rarely  convolute. 
Species  8,  belonging  to  Europe  or  Africa. 

H.  lanatus,  L.,  Meadow  Soft  Grass,  Yelvet  Grass,  York- 
shire Fog,  Salem  Grass,  White  Timothy,  Yelyet  Mes- 
quit  Grass. — A  soft  perennial,  culms  G-24  in.,  ascending,  leafy. 
Leaves  flat,  upper  sheaths  inflated;  ligule  short.  Panicle  2-5 
in.,  whitish  green,  often  pinkish ;  branches  2-3-nate.  Spikelets 
-J-  in.,  elliptic-oblong;  empty  glumes  acute,  nerves  strong. 
[Specific  character  after  Hooker.] 

Velvet  grass  is  mentioned  here  because  it  is  so  soft,  velvety, 
conspicuous  and  handsome,  that  every  one  at  once  becomes  inter- 
ested in  knowing  the  name  and  value,  but  it  is  still  questionable 
whether  it  is  worthy  of  cultivation  anywhere. 

Holcus  lanatus  is  very  productive  of  seed,  and  somewhat 
resembles  orchard  grass.  The  whole  plant  has  a  grayish  aspect 
of  pale  white  color  often  tinged  with  red.  It  is  very  common  in 
England,  and  has  been  introduced  with  other  seeds  into  various 
parts  of  this  country.  During  summer  on  the  moist  old  pastures 
of  New  England,  we  have  often  seen  bunches  untouched  and 
going  to  seed,  while  June  grass,  red  top  and  white  clover  were 
kept  closely  cropped. 

Baron  Lawes  says:     "This  grass  is  not  liked  by  cattle  either 

FIG.  86.— Holcus  Uinatiis  (Velvet  Grass) ;  a,  A  plant;  fc,  spikelet;  c,  back  of  upper 
empty  glume ;  d,  two  florets,  without  empty  glumes.— (Scribner.) 

25 


194  HOLCUS   MOLLIS,    L.,  CREEPING   SOFT  GRASS. 

I 

when  green  or  in  hay,  being  too  soft,  spongy,  and  insipid.  It  is 
almost  a  weed,  tending  to  usurp  the  land,  and  is  one  of  the  fe\r 
poor  grasses  which  is  not  reduced  but  increased  by  manuring  a 
meadow  [of  mixed  species].  The  seed  should  be  carefully 
excluded." 

Dr.  Phares  says :  "  It  has  been  introduced  into  Texas,  and 
constitutes  nine-tenths  of  all  the  so-called  mesquit  grass  planted 
in  the  Southern  States.  It  grows  much  larger  than  in  the  Eastern 
States  or  in  England ;  and  it  seems  too,  to  be  more  valuable  and 
greatly  improved  here.  It  grows  two  to  four  feet  high  in  the 
South." 

Holcus  mollis,  L.,  Creeping  Soft  Grass. — This  much  resem- 
bles the  former  grass,  but  is  not  so  common.  In  Great  Britain 
the  creeping  habit  makes  it  very  troublesome.  The  nodes  are 
villous,  awn  inflexed,  exserted.  Much  like  H.  lanatus,  but 
usually  more  slender. 

OYNOSUKUS,   L. 

Spikelets  dimorphous,  fascicled  in  a  dense  one-sided  spike-like 
panicle;  the  terminal  fascicle  2-3  fld.,  flowers  perfect,  the  lower 
consisting  of  1-2  neutral  flowers.  Rachilla  of  the  fertile  spikelet 
usually  jointed  above  the  lower  glumes.  The  empty  glumes 
linear,  lanceolate,  acute  or  short  awned.  Floral  glumes  broader, 
membranous,  1-3-nerved,  mucronate  or  awned  at  the  apex  or  on 
the  back.  The  terminal  one  narrower,  empty,  inclosing  a  stam- 
inate  flower,  or  reduced  to  an  awn.  Glumes  of  the  sterile  spike- 
lets  distichous,  pectinate,  all  empty,  sub-equal,  linear,  subulate, 
1-nerved;  rachilla  continuous.  Palea  of  the  fertile  flower  nar- 
row, 2-toothed.  Lodicules  with  a  basal  lobe.  Stamens  3.  Styles 
distinct,  short,  stigmas  plumose.  Caryopsis  oblong  or  elliptical, 
included  by  the  glume  and  palea  and  adherent.  Tufted  annuals 
or  perennials  with  flat  leaves.  The  sterile  spikelets  form  an  invo- 
lucre to  the  fertile  one. 


C.  CRISTATUS  L.,    CRESTED   DOG'S  TAIL.  195 

Species  3  or  4,  found  in  Europe,  western  Asia,  and  northern 
Africa. 

C.  cristatus,  L.,  Crested  Bog's  Tail. — A  stoloniferous  per- 
ennial, 1-2  ft.  hi.,  culms  terete,  erect,  smooth.  Leaves  short, 
narrow,  slightly  hairy;  ligule  2-fid  Spike  1-2  in.,  linear. 

It  has  long  been  found  in  most  meadows  and  pastures  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  still  recommended  by 
nearly  or  quite  all  those  who  sell  grass  seeds,  especially  for  perma- 
nent pasture  and  lawns  on  dry  light  land,  but  we  notice  that 
some  of  the  most  observing  and  independent  farmers  in  those 
countries  seldom  recommend  it  or  use  it  on  their  lands. 

Dr.  Lindley  said:  "  Its  roots  are  long  and  wiry,  and  descend 
deep  into  the  ground.  It  was  quite  early  used  for  pastures  and 
lawns;  not  very  nutritious,  not  a  favorite  with  stock." 

Baron  J.  B.  Lawes  says :  "  This  grass  has  a  wide  range  of  soils, 
and  grows  in  dry,  damp,  and  even  in  irrigated  lands,  and  varies 
in  character  accordingly.  It  is  better  for  pasture  than  hay,  and 
was  unable  to  maintain  ^ven  a  moderate  degree  of  prominence 
where  the  conditions  were  favorable  for  the  luxuriance  of  other 
graminaceous  species.'' 

The  late  James  Buckman  said:  "  We  think  it  has  been  over- 
much cultivated.  It  is  not  a  favorite  with  deer  or  Southdowns. 
The  culms  soon  become  wiry  and  make  poor  hay,  neither  in 
quantity  nor  quality  is  it  worthy  a  place  in  a  good  meadow. 

"The  culms  are  much  used  for  straw-plaits,  for  which  they 
are  well  adapted,  both  from  their  fineness  and  strength." 

It  is  seldom  met  with  in  this  country,  and  judging  from  our 
own  efforts  to  grow  this  grass,  we  have  little  to  expect  in  its 
favoi 


EARLY  ATTEMPTS  TO  CULTIVATE  GRASSES.  197 

CHAPTER    VII. 
EARLY  ATTEMPTS  TO  CULTIVATE  GRASSES. 

Meadows  of  the  Romans. — It  will  be  unsafe  to  enter  into 
details  in  reference  to  the  time  of  introduction  of  most  of  our 
valuable  grasses.  Even  to  the  present  day,  there  is  much  un- 
certainty and  confusion  of  the  names  of  grasses. 

As  a  matter  of  history  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  read  a  few 
extracts  from  L.  J.  M.  Columella,  the  old  Roman,  who  wrote 
about  A.  D.  50 : 

"  The  hay  which  grows  naturally  in  a  juicy  soil,  is  reckoned 
better  than  that  which  is  forced  by  constant  watering.  Land 
that  shelves  gently,  if  it  is  either  flat  or  well  watered,  may  be 
reduced  into  meadow ;  but  such  a  level  ground  is  most  approved, 
which,  having  a  very  small  gentle  descent,  does  not  suffer  the 
showers  nor  the  rivulets  that  flow  into  it,  to  abide  long  in  it;  or 
if  any  water  comes  upon  it,  it  creeps  off  slowly ;  therefore,  if  in 
any  part  it  be  low  and  marshy,  and  the  water  stagnates  upon 
it,  it  must  be  carried  off  by  furrows ;  for  either  great  abundance 
or  scarcity  of  water,  is  equally  pernicious  to  grass  of  all  sorts." 

After  speaking  of  removing  brush,  briars,  and  weeds,  he  says : 
"  It  is  important  that  we  neither  allow  a  hog  to  feed  therein, 
because,  with  its  snout,  it  digs  up  and  raises  the  turf,  nor  larger 
cattle,  unless  when  the  ground  is  exceeding  dry,  because  they 
sink  their  hoofs  into  it  and  bruise  and  cut  the  roots  of  the  herbs. 
Nevertheless,  the  second  year  we  will  allow  smaller  cattle  to  be 
admitted,  after  the  hay  harvest  is  over,  provided  the  dryness 
and  condition  of  the  place  will  suffer  it.  Then  the  third  year, 
when  the  meadow  is  become  more  hard  and  solid,  it  may  receive 

FIG.  87.— Cynosurus  crist-if  JIK  (Crested  Dog's  tail):  a,  A  whole  plant ;  7>,  c,  two  views  of 
a  spikelet.— (Plant  from  Sutton,  spikelets  by  Scribner). 


198  EARLY  MEADOWS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

greater  cattle  also.  Moreover,  the  leaner  and  pendent  places 
must  be  assisted  and  refreshed  with  dung.  Prudent  husband- 
men commonly  lay  more  dung  upon  a  hill  than  a  valley,  because, 
as  I  said,  the  rains  always  carry  the  fatter  matter  down  to  the 
lower  grounds." 

"  There  is  a  measure  to  be  observed  in  drying  hay,  that  it  be 
put  together  neither  over  dry  nor  yet  too  green ;  for,  in  the  first 
case,  it  is  not  a  whit  better  than  straw  if  it  has  lost  its  juice ;  and, 
in  the  other,  it  rots  in  the  loft  if  it  retains  too  much  of  it ;  and 
after  it  is  grown  hot  it  breeds  fire,  and  sets  all  in  a  flame.  They 
do  not  put  it  up  in  mows,  before  that  they  suffer  it  to  heat,  and 
concoct  itself,  and  then  grow  cool,  after  having  thrown  it  loosely 
together  for  a  few  days/' 

Here  in  a  few  lines  we  get  the  ancient  idea  of  selecting  lands 
for  meadows,  of  drainage,  of  clearing  out  weeds,  of  keeping  hogs 
and  cattle  off  from  newly  seeded  land,  of  applying  manure,  of 
storing  hay,  of  spontaneous  combustion. 

The  First  Meadows  of  Great  Britain. — It  is  not  yet  very 
long  since  the  first  efforts  were  made  to  improve  pastures  in 
Great  Britain. 

la  his  Mystery  of  Husbandry  Discovered  and  Laid  Open,  J. 
Worlidge,  in  1681,  writes:  "  Eay  grass,  by  which  they  improve 
any  cold,  sour  clay  weeping  lands  which  is  unfit  for  sainfoin, 
hath  the  precedence  of  all  other  grasses,  these  are  lucerne,  clover, 
tares,  spurry,  and  trefoil."  This  is  the  first  mention  made  of 
rye  grass  in  cultivation,  and  for  many  years  it  was  the  only  true 
grass,  the  seeds  of  which  were  intentionally  sown.  Timothy 
was  introduced  into  England  by  the  soldiers  who  returned  from 
this  country  in  1776.  Orchard  grass  began  to  be  sown  about 
the  same  time,  and  since  then  the  number  of  varieties  has  stead- 
ily increased.  Some  of  the  above,  as  well  as  the  following,  is 
adapted  from  Gould: 

The  making  of  artificial  meadows  began   to  receive  attention 


PROGRESS  HAS  BEEN  VERY  SLOW.  199 

even  from  the  first  settlement  of  this  country.  In  a  work  writ- 
ten by  Jared  Elliott  in  1749,  the  cultivation  of  Timothy  and 
fowl  meadow  is  strongly  recommended,  the  latter  grass  is  espec- 
ially lauded  as  in  many  respects  better  than  any  other. 

Timothy  and  red  top  in  the  East  were  sown  very  extensively, 
and  sea  weed  and  fish  were  successfully  used  as  manures.  Al- 
though we  were  thus  early  in  forming  artificial  meadows  and 
pastures,  our  subsequent  improvement  has  not  kept  pace  with 
our  early  enterprise,  and  we  are  now  far  behind  England  and 
Scotland  in  this  department  of  husbandry. 

In  1824  a  new  and  most  important  stimulus  to  their  cultiva- 
tion was  offered  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  who  published  his 
work,  giving  an  account  of  experiments  made  by  George  Sinclair. 
Since  that  time  Parnell,  Way,  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  Buckman  and 
Voelcker  in  Great  Britain  have  done  much  to  advance  our 
knowledge.  Numerous  prize  essays  and  other  communications 
have  appeared,  and  progress  has  been  rapid  and  substantial,  yet 
even  in  Great  Britain  as  late  as  1882,  one  of  the  best  experi- 
menters, C.  De  L.  F.  DeLaune,  says :  "  Unfortunately  for  owners 
and  occupiers  of  land,  the  grossest  ignorance  prevails  about 
grasses.  To  many  almost  every  herb  that  is  green  is  considered 
to  be  grass." 

Progress  Has  Been  Very  Slow. — Most  of  the  following  para- 
graph is  taken  from  Gould: 

It  will  not  be  denied  that  farmers,  in  general,  bestow  much 
less  care,  or  thought,  upon  their  meadows  than  they  do  upon 
their  grain  lands.  Not  many  can  name  for  certain  half  a  dozen 
kinds,  and  not  one  farmer  in  ten  thousand  knows  the  names  of 
the  grasses  growing  on  his  farm,  or  can  discriminate  between 
them.  Grass  is  grass,  and  that  is  all  they  trouble  themselves  to 
know.  Very  many  are  not  aware  that  they  have  any  other  va- 
rieties than  Timothy,  clover  (which  is  not  a  grass)  and  red  top 
growing  on  their  farms,  although  they  may  have  a  dozen  or 


200  WHY  GRASSES  ARE   NOT  BETTER   KNOWN. 

twenty  other  species;  much  less  do  they  understand  the  peculiar 
properties  and  the  relative  values  of  the  different  species. 

" Not  long  ago,"  says  G-ould,  "we  noticed  a  large  tract  of 
Lyme  grass,  Elymus  villosus,  growing  on  the  banks  of  a  rivulet. 
We  asked  the  owner  of  the  land,  who  had  lived  on  it  over  thirty 
years,  whether  his  cattle  relished  it?  He  told  us  he  did  not 
know ;  he  had  never  noticed  it,  and  could  not  tell  whether  the 
cattle  would  eat  it  or  not.  He  had  seen  it  growing  there  all  the 
time  in  great  abundance,  but  never  knew  its  name,  never  in- 
quired what  it  was,  nor  what  it  was  good  for.  Meadow  fescue, 
Festuca  pratensis,  is  a  very  common  grass  in  the  counties  border- 
ing on  the  Hudson  river,  constituting  about  one-fifteenth  of  the 
crop  on  the  meadows.  When  it  first  came  in  flower  this  year  we 
asked  the  first  six  farmers  that  we  met  with  what  they  called  it. 
Not  one  of  them  could  name  it ;  they  were  not  quite  sure  that  they 
had  it  on  their  farms ;  they  had  something  that  looked  like  it, 
but  they  were  not  sure  that  it  was  the  same.  Two  of  them 
thought  that  it  was  June  grass.  The  difference  between  the  two 
is  so  marked  that  an  intelligent  farmer  should  no  more  confound 
them  than  he  should  confound  a  horse  and  a  cow." 

Why  Grasses  are  Not  Better  Known. — Improvements  in 
agriculture  have  always  advanced  slowly,  with  the  exception  of 
farm  implements,  which  have  not  generally  been  invented  by 
farmers,  but  by  mechanics.  Probably  no  class  of  men  adhere 
more  tenaciously  to  old  practices  than  the  farmers.  They  have 
had  great  respect  for  fashion  and  the  tradition  of  their  fathers. 

Grasses  have  often  been  recommended  under  wrong  names,  or 
from  a  very  limited  observation,  or  from  selfish  motives.  Per- 
haps the  seed  was  poor  and  failed  to  grow.  The  farmer  is 
puzzled  and  returns  to  his  old  ways. 

The  grasses  form  an  exceedingly  natural  family,  and  for  this 
very  reason  it  is  difficult  for  a  beginner  to  readily  distinguish 
individual  differences.  A  certain  grass  varies  much  in  different 


WHAT  HAVE  BEEN  SOWN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN.  201 

situations  and  at  different  stages  of  its  growth.  The  grasses  have 
a  great  deal  in  common,  and  to  a  beginner  all  look  alike. 

Even  for  a  pretty  good  botanist,  there  is  no  denying  the  fact 
that  it  is  quite  a  task  to  learn  to  recognize  our  common  grasses. 
Still,  it  is  no  more  difficult  than  to  match  horses  well,  to  judge 
the  weight  of  a  hog,  or  to  pick  out  a  good  cow  by  her  general 
appearance.  The  grasses  have  small  flowers,  and  these  are  likely 
to  pass  unobserved,  while  the  animals  referred  to,  by  daily  asso- 
ciation soon  become  familiar. 

What  Have  Been  Sown  in  Great  Britain.— The  following 
grasses  and  clovers  have  boen  recommended  in  various  mixtures 
for  meadows  and  pastures.  In  this  connection,  also,  we  give 
the  number  of  pounds  to  the  bushel  and  the  number  of  seeds  to 
the  ounce.  Most  of  the  leading  seedsmen  advertise  and  recom- 
mend a  different  selection  of  grasses  for  each  geological  forma- 
tions ;  one  for  the  London  clay ;  one  for  the  Upper  Cretaceous ; 
one  for  the  lower ;  one  for  the  Oolite ;  one  for  the  Oxford  Clay ; 
one  for  the  Lias ;  others  for  the  New  Red  Sandstone,  Carboniferous 
Limestone,  Coal  Measures,  Old  Red  Sandstone,  Upper  Silurian, 
Lower  Silurian.  Lists  are  made  out  for  rich  loams,  poor  stiff 
clay,  light  soil ;  for  one  year,  two  years,  three  years,  and  for  per- 
manent pasture  and  meadow.  Many  species  are  used  over  and 
over  in  different  mixtures  but  in  varying  proportions.  For  ten  to 
thirty  or  more  species  are  usually  named  for  each  mixture. 

The  writer  quite  agrees  with  James  Hunter,  an  English  seeds- 
man, who  says:  "Although  much  has  been  said  about  'geolog- 
ical formations '  in  connection  with  the  grasses,  this  has  really 
a  very  unimportant  bearing  upon  the  subject,  and  it  is  more 
likely  to  lead  to  confusion  than  otherwise.  Four-fifths  of  those 
desirable  for  permanent  pasture  will  thrive  upon  all  good  soils. 
To  ring  the  changes  upon  the  twenty  grasses  and  clovers  through 
some  fifty  different  geological  formations,  is  nothing  better  than 
a  piece  of  pedantry.  For  all  practical  purposes,  it  is  quite  suf- 


202        POUNDS  TO  THE  BUSHEL ;  SEEDS  TO  THE  OUNCE. 

ficient  to  know  the  general  character  of  the  soil  and  the  situa- 
tion." To  add  to  all  this,  the  soils  of  some  formations  vary 
much  in  fertility  and  physical  conditions. 

The  more  of  mystery  and  complication  a  seedsman  can  make 
out  of  this  subject  the  more  the  farmer  is  likely  to  rely  on  his 
statements,  and  the  more  easily  can  he  be  deceived. 


GRAMINEJE. 


Pound 
to  the 


Seeds 
to  the 
Ounce. 


Agrostis  stolonifera,  Florin  or  Marsh  Bent 15  500,000 

Agrostis  vulgaris,  Red  Top. 14  425,000 

Aira  ccespitosa,  Tufted  hair  grass . . 14  132,000 

Alopecurus  pratensis,  Meadow  Foxtail 7  76, 000 

Anthoxanthum  odoratum,  Sweet  Vernal 10  71,000 

Arrhenatherum  avenaceum,  Tall  Oat-grass 12  21,000 

Brachypodium  sylvaticum,  Wood  Fescue  grass 10  15, 500 

Cynosurus  cristatus,  Crested  Dog's  Tail 26  28, 000 

Dactylis  glomerata,  Cock's  Foot,  Orchard  grass 14  40,000 

Dactylis  glomerata,  gigantea,  Large  Orchard  grass 10  34,000 

Elymus  arenarius,  Lyme  grass 11  2,320 

Elymus  geniculatus,  Lyme  grass 12  2,300 

Festuca  duriuscula,  Hard  Fescue 10  39,000 

Festuca  elatior,  Tall  Fescue.. 15  20,500 

Festuca  elatior  gigantea,  Large  Fescue 13  17,500 

Festuca  heterophylla,  Various-leaved  Fescue 12  33,000 

Festuca  gigantea,  Giant  Fescue. 16  8,600 

Festuca  ovina,  Sheep's  Fescue 12  64,000 

Festuca  ovina  tenuifolia,  Slender  Fescue. 15  80.000 

Festuca  pratensis,  Meadow  Fescue 15  26,000 

Festuca  pratensis  loliacea,  Darnel  Spiked  Fescue 15  24.700 

Festuca  rubra,  Red  Fescue 10  39,000 

Olyceria  aquatica,  Water  Meadow  grass. 13  58,000 

Glyceria  fluitans,  Floating  Water  grass 15  33,000 

Holcus  lanatus,  Woolly  Soft  grass 7  95,000 

Holcus  mollis,  Creeping  Soft  grass.. 6  85,000 

Lolium  Italicum,  Italian  Rye  grass 18to20  27,000 

Lolium  perenne,  perennial  Rye  grass 18to30  15,000 

Milium  effusum,  Millet  grass 25  80,000 

Phalaris  arundinacea,  Reed  Canary  grass 48  42,000 

Phleu*n  pratense,  Timothy... 45  74,000 

Poa  nemoralis,  Wood  Meadow  grass 15  173,000 

Poa  nernoralis  sempervirens,  Evergreen  grass 15 J  133,000 

Poa  pratensis,  June  grass 14  243,000 

Poa  trivialis,  Rough-stalked  Meadow  grass 14  217,000 


POUNDS  TO  THE  BUSHEL;  SEEDS  TO  THE  OUNCE.       203 


QRAMINE^.-  -CONTINUED. 


Pounds 
to  the 


Seeds 
to  the 
Ounce. 


Psamma  arundinacea.  Sea-reed 15  10,000 

Trisetum  flavescens,  Yellow  Oat  grass 5£  118,000 

LEGUMINOS^E. 

Lotus  corniculatus,  Bird's-foot  trefoil 62  28,000 

Lotus  major,  Large  Foot  trefoil 64  51,000 

Medicago  lupulina,  Black  Medick 63  16,000 

Medicago  sativa,  Lucerne,  Alfalfa 60  12,600 

Ondtrychis  sativa,  Sainfoin L 26  1,280 

Trifolium  fdiforme,  Yellow  Suckling  clover 65  54,000 

Trifolium  hybridum.  Alsike  clover 60  45,000 

Trifolium  pratense,  Red  clover. 60  16,000 

Trifolium  pratense  perenne,  Perennial  clover. 60  16,000 

Trifolium  repens,  White  clover 65 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Achillea  millefolium,  Yarrow 30  200,000 

Cichorium  intybus,  Chicory 32  21,000 

Petrosdinum  sativum,  Parsley 41  12,800 

Plantago  lanceolata.  Lance-leaved  Plantain  - 52  15,600 

Poterium  sanguisorba,  Burnet-. - 25  3,320 


From  Morton's  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  we  glean  the  fol- 
lowing in  relation  to  the  number  of  kinds  selected  for  each  use  or 
situation : 

1.  For  alternate  husbandry,  4  grasses,  5  clovers  and  others. 

2.  For  permanent  pasture,  10  grasses,  4  clovers. 

3.  For  permanent  pasture,  12  grasses,  6  clovers. 

4.  For  permanent  lawn,  12  grasses,  6  clovers. 

5.  For  permanent,  another  mixture,  12  grasses,  5  clovers. 

6.  For.  permanent  fine  lawns,  7  grasses,  2  clovers. 

7.  For  permanent  lands  for  irrigation,  11  grasses,  2  clovers. 

8.  For  permanent  lands  in  orchards,  10  grasses,  3  clovers. 

9.  For  heathy  and  moory  lands,  7  grasses,  4  clovers. 

10.  For  deep  mossy  ground,  9  grasses,  3  clovers. 

11.  For  marshy  grounds,  8  grasses,  1  clover. 

12.  For  sandy  woods,  11  grasses,  1  clover. 

13.  For  rocky  and  gravelly,  13  grasses,  4  clovers. 


204     WHAT  HAVE  BEEN   SOWN   IN   THE   UNITED  STATES. 

14.  For  warrens,  8  grasses,  5  clovers. 

15.  For  drifting  sands,  3  grasses,  0  clovers. 

These  include  in  all  36  species  of  grasses,  10  of  leguminous 
plants  and  5  of  others,  51  in  all.  The  best  farmers  of  Great 
Britain  in  more  recent  times  are  inclined  to  reject  quite  a  num- 
ber of  species  heretofore  enumerated  for  sowing. 

What  Have  Been  Sown  in  the  United  States.— In  1858,  in 
a  prize  essay  for  which  he  received  $50,  S.  D.  Harris,  of  Ohio, 
says :  "  Of  the  grasses  that  may  be  called  indigenous,  and  at 
the  same  time  having  the  virtues  of  what  are  called  tame  grasses, 
there  are  but  three  kinds  deserving  of  culture  in  Ohio.  These 
are  Poa  pratensis,  Poa  compressa  and  Trifolium  repens.  And 
all  worthy  of  cultivation  from  any  source  on  arable  land  are 
Timothy,  red-top,  orchard  grass,  red  clover,  and,  for  variety  of 
crop,  occasionally  German  millet  and  common  millet.  We 
should  suffer  no  loss  were  all  the  rest  stricken  from  our  fields  at 
once." 

In  1865,  X.  A.  Willard  reports .  that .  after  making  extensive 
inquiries  of  the  best  dairymen  as  to  the  kinds  of  grasses  em- 
ployed in  old  pastures,  they  report  June  grass,  fowl  meadow 
grass,  meadow  fescue,  red-top,  wire  grass  and  sweet  vernal. 
Timothy,  orchard  grass,  red  clover,  and  some  other  forage  plants, 
they  report,  grow  in  pastures  and  meadows. 

A  leading  farmer,  in  his  report  for  the  Board  of  Agriculture 
in  1868  says:  "In  Connecticut  the  almost  universal  practice  is 
to  sow  Timothy  and  clover,  either  with  rye  in  the  fall  or  with 
oats  in  the  spring,  or  in  some  few  moist  or  rich  meadows  to  use 
red-top." 

During  the  same  year,  J.  M.  McMinn  writes :  "  The  pastures 
of  Pennsylvania  contain  June  grass  (there  called  '  green  grass '), 
Timothy,  red-top,  false  red-top  (Tricuspis  sesleroides),  blue 
grass  (Poa  compressa)  and  meadow  fescue.  In  the  meadows  a 
few  others  were  found." 


WHAT  HAS  BEEN  SOWN  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.        205 

As  late  as  1884,  in  the  Northern  States,  among  those  who  sow 
seeds  on  their  lands  intended  for  meadows,  very  few  sow  any 
other  seeds  than  Timothy  and  clover.  If  left  to  themselves  after 
a  few  years  several  others  come  in  one  way  and  another  and  in- 
crease the  variety  and  quality  of  old  meadows  and  pastures. 

It  is  not  quite  as  true  in  1885,  as  it  was  when  Gould  wrote  it 
in  1869,  that  "This  Babel-like  confusion  of  opinions  demon- 
strates clearly  enough  that  we  have  no  real  knowledge  on  this 
all-important  subject,  and  that  we  rely  only  upon  capricious 
guesses  for  the  settlement  of  the  problem." 

Circulars  or  letters  of  inquiry  in  reference  to  the  grasses  for 
pastures  or  meadows  seldom  bring  valuable  or  trustworthy  in- 
formation. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  list  of  grasses  now  gen- 
erally sown  in  any  State  can  be  counted  on  the  fingers  of  one 
hand,  while  there  are  doubtless  twenty  or  thirty  which  ought  to 
find  extensive  sale  for  the  various  uses  and  the  varied  soils  and 
climates  of  any  large  State.  The  list  is  growing,  slowly  growing 
larger. 

We  wish  to  impress  our  readers  with  the  very  important  fact 
that  little  is  definitely  known  regarding  the  grasses  found  in  our 
pastures,  and  still  less  is  known  in  reference  to  those  best 
adapted  to  cultivation.  As  Gould  says:  "  We  must  fairly  grap- 
ple with  the  undoubted  fact  that  the  science  of  grass  culture  is 
yet  in  the  early  dawn  of  its  infancy." 

The  Englishman  selects  twenty  or  more ;  not  including  some 
which  are  not  true  grasses.  He  selects  some  kinds  for  thin  soil 
or  upland  pastures,  others  for  stiff  clays,  others  for  rich,  deep 
loams,  others  for  meadows  which  are  subject  to  periodic  floods 
along  the  banks  of  rhers,  and  still  others  for  irrigated  meadows 
in  which  the  water  can  be  entirely  controlled. 

There  must  always  be  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  merits  of 
grasses  on  account  of  the  various  soils,  climates,  seasons  and  uses. 


206  TESTING  SEEDS.      SOME  COMMON  WEEDS. 

In  looking  over  a  large  number  of  agricultural  reports  of  the 
Northern  States  we  find  in  some  of  them  much  space  is  given  to 
discussions  of  the  grasses  by  the  farmers  at  their  Avinter  meet- 
ings. There  is  much  said  about  the  care  of  meadows  and  pas- 
tures, with  many  repetitions.  "We  cannot  help  being,  strongly 
impressed  with  the  idea  that  we  need  many  more  careful  observ- 
ers— farmers  who  are  trained  students  of  science. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
TESTING  SEEDS.     SOME  COMMON  WEEDS. 

Seed  Stations  and  Their  Work.— Whether  a  seed  is  liable 
to  grow  or  not  depends  much  on  how  it  was  cured  and  the  nature 
of  the  place  where  it  has  been  stored.  In  the  following  account 
of  some  experiments  this  subject  will  receive  some  attention. 

The  first  station  for  testing  seeds  was  established  by  Dr. 
Knobbe,  of  Saxony,  in  1869.  In  Germany,  in  1878,  upwards  of 
forty  of  the  experimental  stations  had  attached  to  them  a  seed 
control  department,  and  14  of  these  did  nothing  else. 

Adulterations. — These  stations  discovered  adulterations  of  seeds 
which  were  "  most  ingenious  in  character,  harmful  in  effect,  and 
remarkable  in  amount."  One  practice  is  to  kill  seeds  by  boiling 
or  baking  and  mix  them  with  some  desirable  seeds  which  they 
resemble.  The  dead  seeds  in  that  case  tell  no  tales. 

Old  seeds,  or  seeds  of  another  variety,  are  often  dyed  or 
bleached  with  sulphur,  and  used  to  adulterate  good  seeds  of  red 
clover  or  some  other  species.  Old  seeds  are  dressed  with  oil  and 
sometimes  rubbed  by  machinery  to  improve  their  appearance. 
Seeds  of  rye-grass  and  Italian  rye-grass  are  often  adulterated 


SEED   STATIONS   AND   THEIR  WORK 


307 


with  those  of  chess,  which  they  much  resemble.  Holcus  lanatus, 
a  poor  grass,  is  also  found  in  rye-grass.  Meadow  fescue  is  largely 
adulterated  with  that  of  perennial  rye.-grass,  a  cheaper  seed  of 
less  value. 


FIG.  88.— e,  A  floret  of  meadow- 
fescue  ;  /,  the  same  enlarged ; 
g,  the  other  side  of  the  base  of 
same.  •  _ 


FIG.  89.— e,  A  floret  of  peren- 
nial rye  grass  ;  /,  the  same  en- 
larged ;  (/,  the  other  side  of  the 
base.  Observe  the  difference 
in  the  apexes,  difference  in  the 
piece  of  the  rachis  held  by 
each,  though  this  is  not  uni- 
formly as  here  shown.  Ob- 
serve the  base  of  Fig.  88  is 
convex,  while  that  of  Fig.  89  is 
flat  or  concave. 


Crested  dog's-tail  is  largely  adulterated  with  Molinia  ccerulea, 
which  is  of  no  value. 

Seeds  formerly  sold,  even  by  the  very  best  seedsmen,  were 
more  or  less  tampered  with,  and  they  were  careful  to  adulterate 
their  seeds  about  so  much  each  year  to  prevent  troublesome 
questions. 

In  Germany,  the  mills  ground  quartz,  it  was  sifted,  colored, 
and  mixed  with  seeds  of  clover.  Pure  seeds  are  quoted  as  "net 
seed,"  while  dead  ones  are  quoted  as  trio  or  "000." 

James  Hunter,  of  England,  in  his  seed  catalogue  and  treatise 
on  grasses,  writes:  "If  it  be  asked  how  such  a  state  of  things 
can  be  possible,  the  only  reply  that  can  be  given  is,  that  so  com- 
plete is  the  want  of  knowledge  of  this  subject  on  the  part  of  the 
seedsmen  and  agriculturists,  that  almost  any  species  of  adultcr- 


208  SEED  STATIONS  AND  THEIR  WORK. 

ation  of  grass  seeds  may  be  practiced  without  fear  of  detection. 
It  is  probable  that  not  one  seedsman  in  twenty  knows  all  the 
species  of  grasses  commonly  used  for  permanent  pastures,  or  the 
seeds  of  the  various  species  of  grass  seeds  he  sells." 

In  1877  the  writer  began  testing  seeds  sold  in  this  country,  and 
found  many  that  were  poor  and  unreliable,  especially  the  more 
uncommon  grass  seeds,  most  of  which  are  imported.  Grass 
seeds  vary  much  in  weight,  owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are 
usually  sold  in  the  chaff,  which  is  not  always  well  filled.  For 
this  reason  it  should  always  be  bought  by  weight,  remembering 
that  if  dry,  the  heavier  the  sample,  the  less  empty  chaff  it  is 
likely  to  contain. 

Concerning  poor  seeds  Professor  Shelton  remarks:  "The 
difficulty  experienced  by  farmers  in  securing  good  seed  has  been 
a  serious  obstacle  in  the  way  of  grass  culture  in  Kansas.  We 
have  reason  to  know  that  the  complaint  regarding  the  quality 
of  grass  seeds  retailed  in  the  State  is  as  just  as  it  is  universal. 
The  special  cause  of  this  trouble  in  Kansas  seems  to  grow  out  of 
the  fact,  that,  as  a  rule,  the  trade  in  grass  seeds  is  not  a  large 
one  as  yet,  anywhere ;  and  seeds  which  are  not  sold  any  one  sea- 
son, are  carried  to  the  next.  In  this  way,  seeds  which  were 
originally  good  are  badly  damaged,  or  their  vitality  is  totally 
destroyed  by  being  kept  year  after  year  in  damp  cellars  and 
mouldy  warehouses.  But  more  than  this,  seeds  are  often  worth- 
less in  the  start,  frdm  having  never  been  properly  matured,  or 
from  injury  received  in  the  field  or  mow  before  threshing." 

Doctoring  and  adulterating  and  selling  such  seeds  is  worse 
than  selling  100  yards  of  cotton  thread  for  200  yards,  or  deceiv- 
ing in  the  weight  or  cost  of  tea,  coffee  or  sugar.  The  sale  of 
poor  seeds  affects  the  future  crops  as  well  as  the  present  one. 

In  German  seed-stations  the  following  kind  of  work  is  done: 
determination  of  the  species,  the  amount  of  impurities  and  their 
nature,  the  germinating  power  of  seeds,  the  total  weight  of  the 


GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS.  209 

seeds,  their  specific  gravity,  their  weight  per  bushel,  detection 
of  dyeing,  bleaching,  oiling,  etc. 

The  apparatus  needed  is  very  simple,  consisting  of  a  small 
magnifying  glass,  some  sieves  of  various  grades,  bellows,  forceps, 
delicate  scales,  thermometers,  jars,  test-plates,  chemical  tests, 
and  a  good  knowledge  of  botany.  Some  genuine  seeds  of  the 
common  weeds  and  grasses  are  useful  for  comparison. 

The  sample  should  be  carefully  and  fairly  drawn  from  the 
whole,  and  well  mixed.  As  a  general  thing  for  convenience,  50 
or  100  seeds  or  multiples  of  these  numbers  are  counted  out. 
They  may  be  placed  between  layers  of  moist  flannel  or  thick 
woolen  paper,  and  kept  in  a  temperature  of  50  to  60  degrees 
F.  A  dish  of  damp  sand,  with  a  paper  or  cloth  on  top  to  hold 
the  seeds,  over  which  is  another  cloth,  is  a  very  satisfactory 
arrangement. 

What  kind  will  usually  Germinate  and  what  will  not. — 
Seeds  of  the  commonest  grasses,  such  as  Timothy,  orchard  grass, 
June  grass,  red  top,  and  the  common  clovers,  are  generally  very 
good,  containing  from  two  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  impurities, 
which  consist  mostly  of  dirt,  straw  and  chaff. 

The  seeds  of  the  less  common  grasses,  such  as  perennial  rye 
grass,  the  fescues,  meadow  foxtail,  oat  grass,  crested  dog's  tail, 
sweet  vernal  possess  a  very  low  vitality,  almost  without  exception. 
These  are  mostly  imported  from  Europe. 

In  1877,  the  writer  tested  grass  seeds  purchased  of  one  of  the 
bess  known  seedsmen  of  New  York.  Four  lots  of  50  seeds  each 
were  tested,  with  the  following  results  given  in  per  cent.  In 
each  case  what  appeared  to  be  a  seed  Avas  tested.  Most  of  these 
were  in  the  chaff: 

Hard  fescue,  13  per  cent.  Red-top,  14  per  cent. 

Rhode  Island  bent,  7  per  cent.  June  grass,  3  per  cent. 

English  rye-grass,  f>  per  cent.  Reed  canary  grass,  3  per  cent. 

Rough-stalked  meadow,  2  per  cent.  Meadow  foxtail,  4  per  cent. 

Schroder's  Bromus,  60  per  cent.  Sheep's  fescue,  1  per  cent. 

27 


210  WILL  SEEDS  SPROUT  MORE  THAN  ONCE? 

Wood-meadow  grass,  1  per  cent.  Creeping  bent,  2  per  cent. 

Meadow  fescue,  7  per  cent.  Crested  dog's-tail,  8  per  cent. 
Sweet  vernal,  15  per  cent. 

Tall  fescue,  11  per  cent.  Large  red  clover,  88  per  cent. 

Darnel  spiked  fescue,  5  per  cent.  Medium  red  clover,  88  per  cent. 

Orchard  grass,  27  per  cent.  Bokhara  clover,  48  per  cent. 

Hungarian  grass,  51  per  cent.  Italian  clover,  82  per  cent. 

Yellow  oat  grass,  1 1  per  cent.  Lucerne,  74  per  cent. 

Timothy,  68  per  cent.  White  clover,  84  per  cent. 

Italian  rye-grass,  21  per  cent.  Alsike  clover,  64  per  cent. 

The  writer  had  kept  some  home  grown  seeds  at  the  Agricult- 
ural College  for  two  or  three  years  in  several  different  rooms,  one 
of  which  was  a  damp  basement.  These  seeds  were  shelled  out, 
as  were  the  seeds  taken  from  the  samples  purchased  from  the 
New  York  seedsman : 

NEW  YORK  SEEDS.  COLLEGE    SEEDS 

Shrceder's  Bromus,  64  per  cent.  Shroeder's  Bromus,  96  per  cent. 

Sheep's  fescue,  0  per  cent.  Sheep's  fescue,  72  per  cent. 

June  grass,  6  per  cent.  June  grass,  28  per  cent. 

Rye-grass,  18  per  cent.  Rye-grass,  74  per  cent. 

Meadow  fescue,  6  per  cent.  Meadow  fescue,  92  per  cent. 

Orchard  grass,  66  per  cent.  Orchard  grass,  82  per  cent. 

Red  clover,  94  per  cent.  Red  clover,  52  per  cent. 

Seeds  taken  from  packages  with  low  vitality  will  vary  much  in 
different  tests,  but  good  fresh  seeds  run  high  and  quite  uniform. 
Good  seeds  will  stand  the  most  abuse. 

Will  Seeds  Sprout  More  Than  Once?— It  is  the  opinion  of 
many  that  seeds  once  sprouted  and  well  dried  will  never  sprout 
again.  "To  sprout"  means  "to  germinate/*'  "to  vegetate/' 
"to  begin  to  grow,"  "to  shoot,  as  the  seed  or  the  root  of  a 
plant."  In  each  of  the  cases  considered  the  roots  died  at  the 
end  of  each  test,  and  new  ones  pushed  out  when  moistened. 
The  same  plumule  lived  over,  or  endured  all  the  changes. 
Wheat  and  rye  and  oats  will  start  to  grow  after  drying  for  several 
times,  often  for  six  or  more  times. 


HOW  TO  PROCURE  GOOD  SEEDS.  211 

How  to  Procure  Seeds  that  are  Good  and  True  to  Name. 

— It  has  been  shown  that  there  are  many  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  making  improvements  in  the  seeding  of  land  to  grass.  Our 
farmers  usually  buy  two  or  three  common  sorts  offered  in  the 
market.  In  England  the  seedsmen  have  largely  prescribed  the 
kinds  to  be  used  for  meadows  and  pastures,  and  they  are  natu- 
rally inclined  to  recommend  what  is  to  them  most  prof. table  and 
•easily  obtained.  Where  land  is  to  remain  in  grass  for  some 
years  it  is  very  important  to  make  the  right  selection  of  seeds. 
The  leading  seedsmen  keep  experts,  as  they  call  themselves,  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  information  on  this  subject. 

They  take  contracts  at  special  rates  for  laying  down  a  certain 
number  of  acres  to  grass. 

The  Royal  Agricultural  Society  employs  a  consulting  botanist 
to  examine  samples  of  seeds  offered  in  the  market.  He  has  fees 
for  performing  certain  work.  To  report  on  the  purity,  amount 
.and  nature  of  foreign  materials,  perfectness,  and  germinating 
power  of  a  sample  of  seeds  the  fee  is  five  shillings.  The  council 
have  established  a  standard  for  the  examination  of  seeds. 

1.  That  the  bulk  be  true  to  the  species  ordered. 

2.  That  it  contain  not  more  than  five  per  cent,  of  seeds  other 
than  the  species  ordered. 

3.  That  the  germinating  power  shall  be,  for  cereals,  green 
-crops,  clovers  and  Timothy  not  less  than  90  per  cent. ;  for  fox- 
tail not  less  than  20  per  cent. ;  and  for  other  grasses  not  less 
than  70  per  cent. 

Seedsmen  in  England  and  Germany  will  now  guarantee  seeds 
in  accordance  with  this  standard. 

In  England,  in  1869,  after  enacting  a  law  against  "doctor- 
ing "  seeds,  they  nearly  or  quite  disappeared  from  the  market. 
The  consulting  botanist  had  only  seen  two  samples  in  five  years. 
Killed  and  dyed  seeds  are  gone,  but  dead  seeds  may  still  be 
found. 


212  HOW  TO  PROCURE  GOOD  SEEDS. 

Notwithstanding  the  laws  enacted,  and  care  taken,  it  is  by  no 
means  easy  to  secure  good  seeds  true  to  name. 

Mr.  De  Laune,  in  Jour.  Eoyal  Ag.  Soc.,  in  1882,  says:  "How- 
ever careful  I  was  in  my  orders,  and  from  whatever  seed-market 
I  ordered  my  seeds ;  the  percentage  of  rye  grass,  soft  woolly 
grass,  and  other  bad  grasses  and  weeds,  was  beyond  all  belief. 
I  learned  that  good  seed  was  most  difficult  to  get.  I  consulted 
the  botanist,  and  to  my  great  amazement  was  told  that  my  seed 
bought  for  meadow  fescue  was  all  rye  grass,  and  the  rough 
meadow  grass  was  all  smooth  meadow  grass.  I  have,  since  these 
experiments,  never  sown  any  seed  except  after  the  sample  had 
been  examined  by  the  consulting  botanist ;  and  have,  in  conse- 
quence, obtained  results  most  satisfactory  to  myself.  I  have 
found  it  necessary  to  examine  seeds  from  different  parts  of  every 
sack.  I  regret  to  say  that  there  is  no  seed-merchant  I  would 
trust  without  the  seed  was  examined  by  the  consiilting  botanist." 
And  yet  ;i  leading  seedsman  in  England  says :  "  The  seedsman 
should  be  treated  with  much  the  same  sort  of  confidence  as  the 
family  doctor." 

Doubtless  my  readers  will  be  glad  to  see  the  following  quota- 
tion from  the  Annual  Report  of  the  consulting  botanist, — W. 
Caruthers,  of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  for  1884: 

"During  the  past  year  I  have  examined  701  samples  of  seeds 
for  the  members  of  the  society,  besides  replying  to  inquiries 
regarding  the  nature,  habits,  and  names  of  weeds,  and  the  best 
way  of  dealing  with  them ;  the  diseases  of  cultivated  plants ;  and 
to  various  matters  affecting  the  crops  of  the  farm.  I  have 
examined  69  samples  of  meadow  fescue,  and  46  of  tall  fescue,  in 
all  115  samples,  as  compared  with  85  in  the  previous  year.  Sixty- 
five  per  cent  of  the  samples  of  meadow  fescue  were  free  from 
weeds  and  seeds  of  other  grasses,  as  against  26  per  cent  of  last 
year.  The  principal  adulterant  employed  is  rye  grass ;  but  the 


HOW  TO  PROCURE  GOOD  AND  TRUE  SEEDS.  213 

use  of  this  seed  is  very  greatly  lessened.     [This  is  on  account  of 
the  work  of  the  consulting  botanist.] 

s '  Seventy-six  samples  of  cocksfoot  [orchard  grass]  were  on  the 
whole  pure.  Six  per  cent  had  some  small  rye  grass  seeds  in  them, 
and  in  one  case  20  per  cent  of  Yorkshire  fog  (Holcus  lanatus,} 
were  included  in  the  sample. 

"A  fair  proportion  of  65  samples  of  meadow  foxtail  was  found 
good.  No  less  than  64  per  cent  of  the  samples  of  Agr.ostis  alba 
var.  stolonifera,  florin  or  creeping  bent,  were  infested  with  ergot,, 
a  most  dangerous  fungus. 

"  Out  of  126  samples  of  clover,  19  per  cent  of  the  red  clover 
contained  seeds  of  dodder,  and  25  per  cent  of  the  alsike  contained 
seeds  of  this  parasite. 

"  Fewer  samples  of  grass  mixture  have  been  submitted  to  me 
during  the  past  year,  but  the  samples  examined  have  more  firmly 
,  convinced  me  that  it  is  most  undesirable  for  growers  to  purchase 
their  seed  in  this  form.  One  mixture  consisted  entirely  of  rye 
grasses,  with  some  trefoil  and  a  little  clover,  and  in  addition  the 
rye  grass  was  infested  with  ergot.  Another  consisted  of  rye 
grass  with  one  per  cent  of  other  grasses  and  clovers." 

If  railroad  companies  find  it  necessary  to  employ  engineers, 
if  trustees  think  it  best  to  employ  a  landscape  gardener  to  lay  out 
a  park  or  cemetery,  if  builders  employ  architects,  why  should  not 
the  farmers,  at  a  trifling  expense  to  each,  employ  a  consulting 
botanist  at  an  experiment  station,  to  examine  seeds  before 
purchase  ? 

We  look  forward  with  hope  to  the  time  when  every  State  shall 
have  one  or  more  such  stations. 

To  some  extent,  the  following  plan  adopted  by  Professor  Shel- 
ton,  of  Kansas,  will  work  well : 

"  Our  practice,  which  has  been  entirely  satisfactory,  has  been 
to  send  to  those  dealers  who  make  a  specialty  of  grass  seeds  in 
the  sections  where  the  seeds  are  raised.  We  have  always  sent 


214  WEEDS  IN  THE  MEADOW. 

to  the  large  eastern  dealers  for  our  grass  seeds,  and  to  Denver 
and  San  Francisco'for  our  alfalfa  seeds.  This  may  not  be  the 
best  plan,  but  it  has  been  satisfactory  as  to  the  quality  of  the 
seed  procured  and  as  to  the  price,  which,  including  the  freight, 
we  have  found  to  be  considerably  less  than  that  asked  by  local 
dealers." 

Weeds  in  the  Meadow. — A  weed  is  now  generally  described 
as  a  plant  out  of  place,  or  growing  where  it  is  not  wanted.  All 
the  pasture  grasses  are  weeds,  if  they  grow  in  our  garden  or  corn 
field.  In  some  countries  potatoes  become  weeds.  A  plant  may 
be  a  troublesome  weed  in  one  country  and  not  in  another. 

R.  W.  Emerson  entertained  a  very  hopeful  view  of  weeds,  and 
defined  one  as  "a  plant  whose  virtues  have  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered. *  *  *  *  Every  plant  probably  is  yet  to 
be  of  utility  in  the  arts." 

A  largo  majority  of  our  worst  weeds  are  foreigners,  and  have 
come  from  Europe,  Asia  and  South  America.  It  is  just  so  with 
the  fields  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  Most  of  the  weeds  are 
introduced  on  to  a  farm  by  being  sown  with  seeds  of  the  grasses 
jind  clovers ;  occasionally  they  come  from  fresh  manure  or  from 
waste  places,  or  slovenly  farms  in  the  neighborhood.  Most  of 
them  are  following  the  tide  of  emigration  and  are  "going  west," 
but  a  few  are  taking  the  opposite  course,  such  as  Rudbeckia  liirta, 
L.  Dysodia  and  Matricaria  discoidea,  D.  C. 

In  the  words  of  Dr.  Thurber:  "  Weeds  seem  to  be  naturally 
well  provided  for  distribution,  but  the  careless  farmer  sows 
them  broadcast  by  the  handful,  and  does  what  nature  cannot  do 
— lie  put*  them  in  well  prepared  soil,  where  they  will  be  sure  to 
grow.  In  the  month  of  March  hundreds  of  farmers  will  sow 
their  clover.  Next  summer,  or  later,  we  shall  have  from  some 
of  them  letters  and  specimens.  'A  new  weed  has  appeared  in 
my  field,  or  meadow,  and  threatens  to  kill  out  everything  else. 
What  is  it,  and  how  shall  I  get  rid  of  it?  Where  did  it  come 


WEEDS  IN  THE  MEADOW. 


•215 


from? '  The  answer  will  be:  'You  carefully  sowed  it  that  cool 
March  day  with  your  clover.' ': 

Plants  are  assisted  to  become  weeds  by  producing  many  seeds, 
by  ripening  with  the  crop  so  the  seeds  are  harvested  with  it,  by 
ripening  before  the  crop  and  scattering  seeds  on  the  ground,  by 
producing  seeds  Avhich  are  not  easily  separated  by  sieves,  by  pro- 
ducing very  small  seeds  which  escape  notice,  by  having  a  supply 
of  hairs  that  they  may  be  carried  by  the  wind,  or  some  awns  or 
hooks  to  hold  fast  to  animals,  by  remaining  a  long  time  in  the 
soil  without  losing  their  vitality,  by  producing  long  or  thick  roots 
not  easily  eradicated,  by  producing  bulbs,  or  long  root  stocks,  by 
being  offensive  to  all  kinds  of  stock  so  they  are  allowed  to  grow 
and  multiply. 

Clay  soil  is  less  likely  to  be  troubled  than  loam  or  sand. 

Some  of  the  weeds  which  interfere  with  the  growth  of  grasses 
and  clovers  in  the  Northern  States  are  here  enumerated,  with 
figures  of  a  few  and  remarks  in  reference  to  all. 


PIG.  90.  PIG.  94. 

FIG.  90.    An  achene  or  fruit  of  Ranunculus  bulboaus,  L. 
troublesome  perennial  with  yellow  flowers,  found  in  the  northeast.    Side  view  and 


CL 

FIG.  95. 
(Bulbous  Crowfoot.)    A 


cross  section,  1  x  10.— (Sudworth). 
Ranunculus  acris.    L.    (Tall  Crowfoot.)    Much  resembling  the  last  though  destitute 

of  the  bulb. 

FIG.  91.    Brassica  nigra,  L.    (Black  Mustard.)    1x15.— (Sudworth.) 
FIG.  92.    Capsella  Bursa-pastorte,  Moench.  (Shepherd's  Purse.)    1  x 20.— (Sudworth.) 
FIG.  P3.    Hypericum  prolificum,  L.    (Shrubby  St.  John's  Wort),  two  views.  1x20.— 

(Sudworth.) 

FIG.  94.    Silene  inflate,    Smith.    (Bladder  Champion.)    1  x  16.-(Sudworth.) 
FIG.  95.    Cerastium   rulgatum,  L.      (Mouse-ear  Chickweed),  two  views  of  a  seed. 

1x25.— (Sudworth.) 


216 


WEEDS  IN  THE  MEADOW. 


FIG.  97. 


FIG.  98. 


FIG.  96.— Stellcvria  media,  Smith.  (Star  chickweed.)  A  seed  lying  on  one  of  its  two  flat 
sides.  1x20.— (Sud  worth.) 

FIG.  97. — Mollugo  verticttlata,  L.  (Carpet- weed.)  Two  views,  a,  looking  towards  one 
edge  ;  b,  lying  on  one  side.  These  are  much  like  chickweeds.  1  x  44. — (Sudworth.) 


FIG.  98.— Pqpaver  Rhceas,  L.    A  seed  of  poppy, 
troublesome  in  some  places.    1  x 30.— (Sudworth.) 


Two  or  three  species  are  quite 


FIG.  99. 


FIG.  100. 


FIG.  99.— Portulaca  oUracea,  L.  (Purselane,  "  Pusley"):  a,  seed  lying  on  one  side,  b, 
standing  on  edge  showing  seed  scar.  1  x  12.— (Sudworth.) 

FIG,  100.— Mdlva  rotundifoliti,  L.  (Common  mallow.)  This  low  perennial  seeds  freely 
for  some  months  in  the  year,  sending  down  a  long,  stout  root.  1  x  18.— (Sudworth.) 

Erodium  ricutarium,  L'Her.  Alfilaria,  Pin-clover,  Pin-grass. 
This  plant  belongs  to  the  geranium  family,  and 
has  become  quite  abundant  in  California.  The 
plant  makes  good  pasture,  but  the  seeds  get 
into  the  wool  of  sheep,  and  not  unfrequently 
pierce  the  skin  of  the  animal.  The  seed  of  this 
plant,  by  the  aid  of  alternating  drought  and 
moisture,  can  penetrate  the  soil  after  the  man- 
ner of  Stipa  spartea  previously  mentioned. 

FIG.  101.— Erodium    cicutarium,  L'Her.  (Alfilaria.)    1x3.— (Scribner.) 

Medicago  lupulina,  L.  (Black  Medick.)  This  is  a  biennial  or 
perennial,  and  in  habit  much  resembles  white  clover.  The  flow- 
ers are  yellow;  the  plant  makes  good  feed,  though  there  is  less 


FIG.  103.— Oxytropte  Lambertii.    (Loco  Weed.)-(U.  S.  Agricultural  Report.) 


218 


WEEDS  IN  THE  MEADOW. 


of  it  than  Avould  be  furnished  by  either  of  the 
clovers  in  cultivation.  It  b  longs  to  the  same 
genus  as  Lucerne,  and  is  here  mentioned  be- 
cause the  seeds  are  likely  to  be  found  mixed 
with  the  seeds  of  grasses  and  clovers.  It 
makes  a  very  fair  pasture,  especially  on  rich 
Jcic  c^a}'  land.  The  reticulated  pods  adhere  to  the 

Nonesuch.)  Fruit  or  pod 
enlarged.— (Scribner.,1        WOO!  OI 


Loco  Weed  (Oxytropfe)  grows  about  a  foot  high,  and  is  quite 
erect  in  habit.  It  is  found  on  the  dry  prairies  in  the  West.  There 
is  another  plant,  Astragalus  mollissimus,  which  much  resembles 
the  above  species,  which  is  also  called  Loco  AVeed.  From  the 
Agricultural  Report  for  1884  we  learn  that  they  often  cause  sick- 
ness and  deatli  of  cattle  and  other  domestic  animals.  It  causes 
loss  of  flesh,  lassitude,  impaired  vision,  and  finally  the  brain  is 
affected,  the  animal  becoming  crazy.  The  animal  may  linger  a 
year  or  two.  No  antidote  has  been  discovered. 

Pastinacd  sativa,  L.  Com- 
mon Parsnip  —  has  escaped  from 
cultivation  and  has  become  a 
troublesome,  unsightly  weed, 
with  poisonous  roots. 

Eriyeroa  Canadense,  L.  (Flea 
bane,  Horse-weed,  Mare's  tail.) 

This  is  an  annual  which  horses 

1X8'   and    sheep  will    sometimes    de- 
vour,  though  it  is  unsightly  and  of  no  value. 

Acliillc&a  Millefolium,  L.  (Common  Yarrow.)  This  plant  bears 
small  heads  with  white  ray  flowers;  the  leaves  are  twice  prinnately 
parted.  It  makes  an  inferior  pasture,  though  in  England  it  is 
sometimes  recommended  to  sow  in  mixtures  for  permanent 
pasture. 


WEEDS   IN  THE   MEADOW. 


219 


Eriyeron  annuum,  Pers.,  E.  bellidifolium, 
Muhl.,  E.  Pliiladelpliivum,  ~L.}  E.  strigosum, 
Muhl.,  are  other  species  of  similar  habit  to  fig- 
ure 105,  and  are  quite  unsightly  and  common 
in  thin  meadows. 

Rudbeckia  liirta,    L.     (Cone-flower.)      This 
hairy  weed  has  a  purple  cone  surrounded  with 
yellow  ray-flowers.     It  is  becoming  more  com- 
mon, and  has  made  its  way  from  the  West  to 
the  New  England  States. 


FIG.  105.—  K\ 
Canadense,  L.  ( 
bane.)    lx30.-(Su 
worth.) 


FIG.  106.  FIG.  107.  FIG.  108. 

FIG.  106.— Achi ttcca  MilUfollum,  L.    An  achene,  two  views.    1  x  10.— (Sud worth.) 
FIG.  Ifft.—Leucaiithemum  vulgare,  Lam.  (Ox-eye.)    Achene  enlarged.— (Scribner.) 
FIG.  108.— Cnicus  arven&is,  (Canada  thistle);^m  achene,  also  a  cross  section  of  the 
same.    1  xlO.— (Sudworth.) 

Leucanthemum  vulgare,  Lam.  (Ox-eye,  White  Daisy.)  This  is 
one  of  the  worst  perennial  weeds  or  weeds  of  any  kind  which 
infests  the  meadows  and  pastures  of  this  country.  The  seeds 
are  sown  with  grass  seed. 

Cnicus  arvensis,  Hoffm.  (Canada  Thistle).  This  is  often  con- 
sidered the  arch  fiend  of  weeds,  and  is  too  well  known  in  many 
localities.  The  heads  are  small  and  the  scales  of  the  involucre 
scarcely  prickly  pointed.  It  is  a  perennial  rooting  very  deeply. 
Its  course  westward  is  likely  to  be  checked  by  the  fact  that  it  has 
usually  failed  to  produce  seeds  on  the  prairies.  It  is  often  dioa- 
cious.  Some  account  of  this  pest  is  given  in  connection  with  the 
chapter  on  clover. 


WEEDS  IN  THE  MEADOW. 


Ragweed,  Hogweed,  Roman  Wormwood,  Ambrosia,  is  very 
common,  especially  in  old  fields.  It  is  a  coarse,  homely  annual, 
which  one.  not  a  botanist,  would  scarcely  suspect  was  a  member 
of  the  aster  family. 


FIG  10£  FIG.  111.  FIG  112.  FIG.  113. 

.    FIG.  109.—  Lappa  offlcinalls,  var,  majyr,  Gr   (Burdock.)    One  of  our  worst  wayside 
weeds,  carried  on  the  fleeces  of  animals,    1  x  6.— (Sudworth.) 

FIG.  110.— Two  views  of  an  achene  of  Anthemis  Cotula,  (Mayweed),  1  x  15.-(Sud worth.) 
FIG.  III.- Ambrosia  artemisicefoliu,  L.  (Rag  weed),  an  achene.    1  x  8.— (Sudworth.) 
FIG.  1 12.— Cichorium  Intybus,  L.  (Chicory,  Succory),  two  views.    1  x  7.— (Sudworth.) 
FIG.  113.— Taraxacum  Dens-leonis,  Desf.  (Dandelion),  two  views  of  an  achene,  desti- 
tute of  the  long  beak  and  pappas,  which  break  off  easily.    1  x  10.— (Sudworth.) 

Chicory,  Siccory,  (Ciclioriafhi  Intybus,  L.)  has  been  introduced 
as  a  substitute  for  coffee,  and  has  spread  in  many  waste  places 
in  the  older  portions  of  the  Northern  States. 

Plantago  lanceolata,  L.  (Ribgrass,  Narrow-leaved  Plantain.) 
This  perennial  herb  has  become  extensively  introduced  with 
grass  seed  from  the  East.  The  flower  stalk  runs  up  quickly 
after  cutting,  and  thus  becomes  unsightly  on 
lawns.  It  has  been  found  quite  as  nutritious 
as  some  of  our  best  grasses,  but  it  affords  only 
a  small  amount  of  feed.  Most  kinds  of  stock 
eat  it  when  young.  Seeds  ought  to  become 
•kmew ta£L7(RKX  familiar  to  every  one  who.  makes  a  lawn  or  a 

Narrow  -  leaved  Plant- 
fJSdUrYhT     1X1&-    mead°W- 


WEEDS  IN  THE  MEADOW. 


221 


'iG.  115.  Verhascum 
Thapxus,  L.  (Common 
Mullein).  Three  views 
of  a  seed.  1x20.— fSud- 
worth.) 


Plantago  major,  L.,   (Common  Plantain), 
is4  not  very  troublesome  when  compared  witL 
the  former  species.     Found  about  door  yards. 
Verbascum  Thapsus,  L.    (Common    Mul- 
lein, Velvet-leaf.)     The  seeds  of  this  biennial 
are  very  small  and  very  numerous,      V,  Blat- 
taria    (Moth    Mullein),    is    becoming    com- 
mon, and  needs  attention. 

Linaria  vulgaris,  Mill.  (Toad- 
flax, Butter  and  Eggs.)  This  is 
a  vile  nuisance  in  meadow  or 
pasture.  It  seeds  freely,  and  also 
spreads  very  rapidly  by  its  root- 
stocks. 

Brunella  vulgaris,  L.  (Self-heal  or  Heal- 
all.)  This  is  a  small  perennial  herb,  bear- 
ing violet  flowers.  In  dry,  thin  meadows 
it  is  quite  common  and  on  the  increase. 

Cynoglossum    officinale,    L.     (Hounds- 
-    tongue-)     This  is  another  plant  bearing  a 
nutlet  containing  hooded  prickles. 


FIG.  116.— Linaria  vulgaris.  Mill. 
(Toad-flax.)  Two  views  of  a  winged 
seed.  1  x  15.— (Sud  worth.) 


FIG.  118.— Echium  vulgare,  L.  (Viper's  FIG.    US.—Echinospermum    Lappula, 

Bugloss.)  This  is  somewhat  ornamental,  Lehm.  (Stick-seed.)    The  email  nutlets. 

but  in  some  places  has  become  very  pro-  are  covered  withadouble  row  of  hooked 

lific  and  hard  to  eradicate.    An  angular  prickles.    It  must  be  carefully  kept  out 

wrinkled  nut;  two  views,  much  enlarged.  of  sheep  pastures;   two  views.    1x10. — 

(Scribner.)  (Sudworth.) 

Ouscuta  Epithymum,  Murr.    (Lucerne  Dodder. )    This  is  a  para- 
sitic vine  which  has  occasionullv  been  introduced  with  seed  of 


WEEDS   IN   THE   MEADOW. 


Lucerne.  It  is  likely  to  be  destroyed  by  the  careful  farmer.  As 
soon  as  the  slender  vine  from  the  seed  gets  fast  to  the  stem  of  a 
plant,  the  root  of  the  dodder  perishes.  It  takes  nourishment  from 
the  Lucerne.  The  seeds  are  very  small  and  spherical.  Sulphate 
of  iron  (green  vitriol),  one  pound  to  the  gallon,  sprinkled  on 
plants  of  dodder  is  said  to  destroy  it,  and  will  not  injure  the 
Lucerne.  A  sieve  of  the  proper  size  will  remove  the  seeds.  The 
seeds  will  remain  alive  in  the  soil  for  some  years.  A  similar  cns- 
cuta  is  parasitic  on  red  clover. 


FIG.  130.— Ouscuta  Eptthymum,  (Dodder.) 
nd  an  enlarged  flower  reduced.    (Flore  de 


FIG.  121.—  Amaranthus  re- 
oflexus,     (Amaranth,    Pig- 
weed.) Two  views  of  a  seed. 
lx20.-(Sud  worth.) 


Asclepias  Cornnti,  Des.  (Milkweed.)  In  light  soils  this  is 
often  a  very  troublesome  weed.  The  roots  run  deep  and  spread 
in  every  direction.  The  seeds  are  carried  by  the  wind. 

Ohenopodium  album,  L.  (Pigweed,  Lamb's  Quarters.)  This 
rank  annual  weed,  with  two  or  three  other  species,  is  quite  com- 
mon in  -vaste  places  and  in  cultivated  grounds.  They  are  not 
troublesome  in  pastures  and  meadows,  but  are  mentioned  here 
because  the  seeds  are  sometimes  met  with  in  seeds  of  grasses  and 
clovers. 

The  seeds  are  lenticular,  black,  and  glossy,  and  are  much  like 
those  of  Amaranthus. 

Another  plant,  or  rather  several  plants  of  the  genus  Amaran- 
ihus,  are  often  spoken  of  as  pigweeds.  They  are  not  very  likely 


WEEDS   IX  THE   MEADOW.  233 

to  be  annoying  in  meadows  or  pastures,  but  the  seeds  are  not 
unfrequently  found  mixed  with  those  of  grasses  and  clovers. 


FIG.  122.  Polyyonum 
arirnlare,  L.,  (Knot- 
grass. Doorweed.)  1 
+  8.-(Sudworth.) 


FIG.  133.  Rumex  crispus,  L. 
(Narrow  Dock.)  Two  views. 
1x11.— (Sudworth.) 


FIG.  124.  Euphorbia 
Cwparissias,  L.  Two 
views.  1x10.— (Sud- 
worth.) 


FIG.  125.  Euphorbia 
•nuiculata,  L.  (Spot- 
ted Spurge.)  A  creep- 
ing weed.  Two  views. 
1  x  15.— 


FIG.  126.  Urtica  di- 
ofca,  L.  (Great  sting- 
ing nettle.)  This  has 
spread  over  low  land 
meadows  in  some  pla- 
ces. 1x15.  —  (Sud- 
worth.) 


FIG.  127.  Brnmussec- 
alinus,  L.  i  Chess  de- 
prived of  glume  and 
palea.)  lx3.-(Sud- 
worth.) 


(Sudworth.) 

Polygonum  Persicaria,  L.  (Lady's  Thumb,)  and  some  other 
species  of  Polygonum  have  smooth,  black  flat  seeds. 

Polygonum  aviculare,  L,  (Knot-grass)  and  some  others  have 
triangular  seeds,  shaped  much  like  small  grains  of  buckwheat. 
The  seeds  of  these  two  species,  and  of  others,  are  often  found 
among  grass  seeds. 

Rumex  crispus,  L.  (Curled  or  Narrow  Dock)  and  R.  obtusifolius, 
L.  (Bitter  Dock)  are  both  common  and  troublesome  weeds  in 
meadows.  They  are  perennial  and  have  long  tap  roots.  The 
seeds  are  three  angled  and  like  those  of  Polygonum. 

Rumex  Acetosella,  L.  (Sheep  sorrel)  is  very  common  on  poor, 
light  land.  The  seed  has  the  shape  of  the  species  last-named. 

Euphorbia  Cyparizsias,  L.  (Euphorbia)  has  escaped  from  culti- 
vation. It  roots  deeply,  and  has  in  some  places  become  a  great 
pest. 

Occasionallv  seeds  of  common  chess,  or  cheat,  are  met  with   in 


234  HOW  TO  GET  RID  OF  WEEDS. 

grass  seeds.  In  a  few  instances  the  writer  has  met  with  seeds  of 
chess  which  had  been  rubbed  so  as  to  deprive  them  of  the  floral 
glume  and  palea  which  usually  adhere  quite  firmly.  Figure  118 
gives  some  idea  of  chess  in  this  condition. 

For  accounts  and  figures  of  the  weeds,  which  are  themselves 
grasses,  see  the  several  species  of  grasses  elsewhere  described. 
The  reader  has  110  doubt  had  experience  with  some  of  them,  or 
has  heard  of  June  grass,  quack  grass,  Eragrostis,  chess,  barn- 
yard grass,  crab  or  finger  grass,  the  bristly  fox-tails,  burr-grass 
and  others.  The  grasses  are  remarkably  free  from  poisonous 
properties,  there  being  only  two  or  three  upon  which  rests  any 
serious  suspicions. 

For  further  accounts  of  the  weeds  the  reader  will  consult  the 
paragraphs  on  "  Seed  Distribution  "  and  "  Battle  in  the  Meadow." 

How  to  Get  Rid  of  Weeds. — There  are  two  things  to  be  done : 
1st,  prevent  further  seeding  and  the  further  introduction  of 
seeds ;  2d,  destroy  the  seeds  and  the  plants  now  in  the  soil. 

Farmers  cannot  be  too  careful  about  the  source  of  grass  seed. 
Weeds,  and  some  of  the  worst  type,  are  thus  freely  distributed. 
Where  possible  it  is  better  and  safer  to  grow  one's  own  seed,  or 
procure  it  of  some  careful,  thorough  farmer  near  home.  The 
older  the  country,  as  a  rule,  the  more  likely  it  is  to  furnish  ox- 
eye  daisy,  yarrow,  rib-grass,  and  other  tenacious  and  trouble- 
some weeds.  Foul  seed  is  dear  as  a  gift.  It  is  cheaper  to  pay 
triple  price  for  clean  seed  than  to  be  perplexed  with  the  trouble 
of  getting  rid  of  the  weeds  introduced.  Some  of  the  seeds 
should  be  spread  out  on  a  table  in  a  very  thin  layer  to  aid  in  the 
discovery  of  the  seeds  of  weeds  which  are  liable  to  otherwise 
escape  notice.  Sieves  and  fans  may  remove  some  kinds  entirely. 
Many  sorts  of  seeds,  especially  the  small  ones,  will  pass  undi- 
gested and  unharmed  through  the  digestive  organs  of  horses  and 
cattle.  An  ordinary  compost  heap  does  not  kill  all  unless  every 
portion  is  carefully  turned  in  and  heated. 


HOW    TO    GET  RID  OF  WEEDS.  225 

In  certain  cases,  one  or  more  hoed  crops  may  be  raised  on  the 
land  thoroughly  summer  fallowed.  Pastures  and  meadows 
should  always  be  looked  over  carefully  and  the  weeds  dug  or 
pulled  before  the  seeds  are  ripe,  or  taken  off  the  ground  if  the 
seeds  are  ripe. 

Sheep  must  be  kept  from  pastures  until  stick  seed,  hound's 
tongue,  burdock  and  the  like  have  been  removed. 

The  large  Aveeds,  like  narrow  and  bitter  dock,  parsnip,  carrot, 
may  be  left  till  the  growing  stalk  has  acquired  some  strength. 
Then  on  some  day  when  the  soil  is  soft  and  before  the  seeds  have 
dropped,  go  over  the  field  with  a  spade  or  a  stout  spud,  thrust- 
ing it  down  perpendicularly  within  a  couple  of  inches  of  the 
plant,  take  the  stalk  with  one  hand  near  the  root  and  with  the 
other  pry  it  loose.  In  this  way  no  roots  are  left  below  the  sur- 
face to  sprout  and  send  up  a  new  crop.  Never  cut  off  the  tops 
of  such  weeds,  leaving  the  roots  in  the  ground. 

By  the  following  process  the  writer  has  found  no  trouble  in 
killing  quack  grass,  whether  the  season  be  wet  or  dry,  the  soil 
sand  or  clay,  drained  or  undrained : 

Plow  it  late  in  autumn,  and  as  soon  as  a  team  can  be  put  on 
the  ground  in  the  spring  run  over  it  with  a  cultivator  every  three 
or  four  days.  Never  allow  a  leaf  to  show  itself,  for  then  it  be- 
gins to  recuperate.  By  the  middle  of  June  every  vestige  has 
disappeared.  Farther  south  than  Central  Michigan  no  doubt  it 
would  disappear  earlier.  To  harrow  and  rake  up  the  roots  is  a 
waste  of  labor.  If  during  its  growing  season,  the  green  tops  are 
kept  out  of  sight  the  plants  will  die.  Thorough  work,  eternal 
vigilance  is  the  only  way  to  keep  the  upper  hand  of  weeds. 

For  further  remarks  concerning  the  destruction  of  weeds,  the 
reader  will  consult  the  paragraphs  on  irrigation,  drainage,  use  of 
fertilizers,  quack  grass,  care  of  meadows  and  pastures,  the  battle 
in  the  meadow. 
•     29 


236  GRASSES  FOR  PASTURES  AND  MEADOWS. 

CHAPTER     IX. 
GRASSES  FOR  PASTURES  AND  MEADOWS. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  shown  that  a  judicious  mixture  of  sev- 
eral varieties  will  produce  a  larger  yield  than  can  be  obtained 
where  one  variety  is  sown  by  itself.  This  is  a  rule  in  nature  aa 
well  as  in  farming.  Many  sorts  will  usually  occupy  the  ground 
more  completely  than  one  sort  and  help  keep  out  weeds.  "  Each 
species  has  some  special  niche  to  fill,  some  separate  part  to  play 
in  the  grand  harmony  of  nature.  Each  one  is  better  adapted  for 
some  purpose  or  for  some  soil  or  climate  or  locality  than  any 
other." — (Gould.)  Sinclair  found  that  from  the  beginning 
of  spring  until  winter  set  in,  there  was  no  time  when  one  or 
more  species  of  grass  was  not  in  its  most  perfect  state. .  He  found 
that  dry  weather  favored  some,  moisture  that  of  others.  He 
always  favored  a  mixture  for  producing  the  best  pasture.  A 
mixed  pasture  is  earlier,  gives  a  better  yield,  and  holds  out  better 
than  any  one  species  of  grass. 

Then  there  is  the  taste  of  cattle  to  be  considered.  As  Pleues 
in  her  British  Grasses  states:  " Sheep  have  strong  likes  and  dis- 
likes. They  will  hasten  to  a  kind  of  grass  which  is  a  favorite 
with  them,  tramping  down  all  the  other  grasses  as  unfit  to  taste, 
Horses  again  have  their  preference  and  cows  theirs,  and  we  have 
even  seen  swine  exercise  considerable  cunning  to  secure  a  feed  of 
a  favorite  grass.  So  the  agriculturist  has  as  much  to  consider  as 
a  master  of  ceremonies;  he  must  consult  the  capabilities  of 
situation,  the  qualities  of  his  provision,  and  the  various  tastes  of 
his  company." 

Because  a  grass  is  thrifty  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  it 
is  the  best  adapted  to  the  farmer's  use.  It  may  not  be  nutritious, 
it  may  be  offensive  to  stock.  A  grass  which  thrives  in  one  place 


GRASSES  FOR  PASTURES   AND  MEADOWS.  237 

may  fail  in  another.  Because  a  grass  is  a  native  to  the  country  it 
is  no  sign  that  it  thrives  there  best.  On  the  contrary,  introduced 
plants  often  thrive  better  than  those  which  are  indigenous. 

As  an  instance,  we  have  only  to  think  of  some  of  our  worst 
weeds,  most  of  which  are  foreigners.  There  is  no  one  model 
grass, — a  grass  best  suited  for  all  purposes.  This  has  been  found 
to  be  the  case  with  roses,  with  all  kinds  of  fruits,  grains,  and  veg- 
etables. Some  grasses  are  too  slow  in  starting,  or  they  are  too 
sensitive  to  frost,  or  they  will  not  endure  dry  weather;  the  stems 
are  too  woody,  the  leaves  too  thin,  the  tops  too  short,  or  the  after- 
math is  of  no  account. 

In  making  selections  for  sowing,  the  farmer  must  be  guided 
by  the  climate;  the  soils,  whether  wet  or  dry,  light  or  heavy. 
He  will  be  guided  by  the  uses  to  which  he  puts  the  field,  whether 
for  meadow,  or  pasture,  or  both,  whether  it  is  to  remain  seeded 
for  some  years  or  for  one  or  two  years.  He  will  be  guided  by  his 
location  with  regard  to  markets  and  supply  of  labor. 

It  is  to  the  advantage  of  a  grass,  especially  for  alternate  hus- 
bandry, if  it  seed  freely,  and  if  the  seeds  are  comparatively  large, 
quite  certain  to  grow  and  produce  good  strong  plants  in  a  short 
time.  These  are  doubtless  some  of  the  reasons  why  the  rye 
grasses  are  so  popular,  and  why  Timothy  and  orchard  grass,  and 
the  larger  fescues  are  so  much  used  in  Europe. 

For  permanent  meadow,  there  is  less  objection  to  waiting  a 
longer  time  for  the  slower,  finer  grasses  to  become  established, 
such  as  meadow  foxtail,  June  grass,  and  red.  top. 

The  success  of  grasses  depends  011  the  supply  of  moisture. 
Liberal  spring  rains,  with  mild  weather,  give  grasses  a  good  start 
for  the  summer.  For  the  dryer  portions  of  the  northern  United 
States,  a  grass  must  endure  drying  for  months ;  it  must  endure 
freezing  with  bare  ground  in  a  dry  atmosphere,  with  the  mercury 
down  to  40°  or  50°  below  zero,  or  endure  a  burning  sun  with  the 
murcury  up  to  100°  in  the  shade.  It  must  be  provided  with 


238  GRASSES  FOR  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES. 

means  to  withstand  fires  in  dry  weather.  In  the  south  it  must 
stand  great  heat,  much  moisture  and  much  drought.  In  dry 
climates  it  is  often  hard  to  start  grasses.  They  must  be  peren- 
nial or  produce  an  abundance  of  seeds  capable  of  starting  quickly 
when  the  season  is  favorable. 

Prom  Crops  of  the  Farm,  I  quote:  "Strong,  rich  pastures, 
producing  succulent  grasses  abundantly  are  well  adapted  for  fat- 
tening large  cattle,  either  without  extra  food  or  with  the  aid  of  a 
little  cake  [oil  meal].  Second  rate  pastures,  especially  if  on  a 
cold  subsoil,  will  generally  yield  a  better  profit  from  the  dairy, 
and  from  the  rearing  of  young  cattle.  Dry,  hilly  pastures  are 
most  suited  to  sheep.  The  grazing  of  land  by  mixed  stock  of 
cattle,  sheep,  and  horses,  or  these  in  frequent  succession,  will 
keep  the  land  more  evenly  grazed  than  where  one  kind  only  is 
kept.  Sheep  eat  many  weeds  which  cattle  dislike  and  avoid. 
Horses  are  very  uneven  grazers." 

In  the  words  of  the  late  I.  A.  Lapham,  of  Wisconsin :  "  It 
is  not  to  any  one  species  of  grass  that  we  should  look  for  the 
support  of  our  stock.  On  the  native  prairies  we  find  many 
species  intermingled,  each  doing  its  part ;  some  preferring  low. 
wet  situations,  others  grow  only  on  dry  ground ;  some  prefer  the 
shade  of  forest  trees,  while  others  flourish  best  on  the  most  ex- 
posed parts  of  the  broad  prairies ;  some  grow  only  in  the  water, 
others  along  the  margins  of  lakes  and  streams ;  some  attain  their 
maturity  early  in  the  season,  others  late  in  autumn." 

Farmers  who  have  a  large  quantity  of  meadow  will  often  find 
it  best  to  have  the  grasses  of  different  sorts  in  different  meadows 
that  they  may  not  all  be  fit  to  cut  at  the  same  time,  thus  pro- 
longing the  season  for  haying. 

For  a  meadow,  grasses  should  mature  at  about  the  same  time ; 
for  pasture  the  time  of  flowering  or  of  most  rapid  growth  should 
vary  and  extend  from  early  spring  till  late  autumn,  or  in  the 
South  they  should  extend  over  a  good  portion  of  the  year. 


WHAT  IS  NOW  SOWN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN.  229 

M.  Groetz  found  out  what  grasses  were  best  adapted  to  his  soils 
by  a  slow  process  of  testing  each  separately,  then  he  used  a 
mixture  of  the  seeds  of  those  species  which  he  had  found  did  the 
best.  Chemical  analysis  might  tell  the  same  story  or  it  might 
not. 

WHAT    IS   NOW   SOWJf    IN    GREAT    BRITAIN. 

The  following  notes  are  taken  from  a  recent  admirable  essay 
by  C.  L.  F.  De  Laune  in  Jour.  Roy.  Agr.  Soc.,  1882: 

te  Gross  ignorance  prevails  in  reference  to  the  kinds  of  grasses. 
The  use  of  short-lived  grasses  and  of  biennial  clovers,  coupled 
with  an  insufficiency  of  proper  seed,  is  the  main  cause  of  the 
deterioration  of  new  pastures  after  the  first  two  or  three  years. 

"  The  five  coarse  grasses  most  valuable  for  permanent  pasture 
are  the  following : 

"  Dactylis  glomerata  (Cocksfoot). 

"  Festuca  prafensis  (Meadow  fescue). 

" Festuca  elatior  (Tall  fescue). 

"  Phleum pratense  (Timothy). 

"  Alopecurus  pratensis  (Meadow  foxtail). 

"These  five  should  form  the  bulk  of  all  pastures  on  good  soil, 
either  for  slrjep  or  cattle. 

"  The  most  valuable  of  the  finer  grasses  are : 

"  Cynosurus  cristatus  (Crested  dogstail). 

"  Festuca  duriuscula  (Hard  fescue). 

"  Poa  trivialis  (Rough  meadow  grass). 

"  Agrostis  stolonifera  (Fiorin). 

"  Festuca  ovina  (Sheep's  fescue). 

"  Avena  flavescen*  (Golden  oat-grass). 

"In  much  smaller  proportion  should  be  used  permanent  red 
clover,  cow  grass  (a  kind  of  red  clover),  alsike,  and  white  clover. 
Seeds  of  yarrow  ought  never  to  be  omitted.  These  should  be 
varied  with  the  soil. 


230  WHAT  IS   NOW  SOWN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

"  The  grasses  most  pernicious  to  newly  formed  pastures  are  rye 
grass  in  all  its  varieties  and  Holcus.  lanatus  (soft,  woolly  grass). 
These  produce  an  abundance  of  seed,  are  cheap,  and  quickly 
make  a  great  show,  but  they  soon  die  out  and  leave  room  for 
weeds  to  fill  their  places.  All  rye  grasses,  or  nearly  all,  die  after 
once  seeding." 

He  insists  strongly  that  among  the  best  feeding  grasses  are 
some  of  strong  and  coarse  habit,  while  among  the  finer  kinds  are 
many  that  are  worthless,  although  many  seedsmen  recommend 
the  finer  grasses  aS  of  the  best  quality.  He  finds  rye  grass  a 
gross  feeder,  and  where  it  has  been  sown  it  is  very  difficult  to  get 
other  grasses  to  grow.  The  flower-heads  of  all  the  best  perma- 
nent grasses  are  much  liked  and  greedily  eaten  by  stock, 
consequently  they  rarely  seed  in  a  pasture,  whereas  the  flower- 
heads  of  the  worthless  grasses,  which  are  disliked  by  stock,  are 
constantly  seeding.  In  this  manner  the  poor  grasses  often 
increase  while  the  better  grasses  diminish.  The  best  grasses  are 
cropped  closely,  sheep,  especially,  discriminating  very  carefully 
even  where  the  grasses  are  intermingled. 

"Nature  has  provided  a  succession  of  nutritious  grasses.  A 
meadow  composed  of  a  large  percentage  of  foxtail  is  certain  to 
produce  a  large  quantity  of  early  keep." 

For  obtaining  a  good'  permanent  pasture,  it  is  as  important  to 
secure  good  pure  seeds  of  the  right  sorts  as  it  is  for  a  pomologist 
to  obtain  the  proper  varieties  of  apple  trees. 

Mr.  De  Laune  continues  by  recommending  the  following  mix- 
tures for  permanent  meadow  and  pasture: 


WHAT  IS  NOW  SOWN  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


For  Good  Medium  Soils. 

For  Wet  Soils. 

For  Chalky  Soils. 

Foxtail 

Lbs. 
..  10 

Foxtail 

Lbs. 

Cock's-foot 

Lbs. 
-.  14 

Cock's-foot      

..    1 

Cock's-foot  

..  10 

Cat's-tail  

Timothy 

3 

Timothy 

3 

2 

6 

Meadow  fescue...  
Tall  fescue.  

..    3 

..    8 

Crested  dog's-tail  
Hard  fescue  

..    5 

4 

Tall  fescue    

..    3 

Crested  dog's-tail..... 
Rough  meadow  grass 

..    2 

-    IK 

Crested  dog's-tail 

2 

Sheep's  fescue 

4 

Rough  meadow  grass 

..    2 
1 

Yarrow  

1 

Sheep's  fescue 

Fiorin  

..    2 
1 

Perennial  red  clover. 
Alsike  clover 

..    1 
1 

Perennial  red  clover  . 
Cow  grass  

..    1 
..    1 

Dutch  clover  

1 

Perennial  red  clover. 
Cow  grass 

Alsike 

1 

Alsike  

..    1 

Dutch  clover  

..     1 

Dutch  clover 

1 

Total  

41 

Total 

40 

Total              

..  38 

The  reader  will  observe  that  this  recent  experimenter  omits 
the  rye  grasses,  sweet  vernal  and  some  others,  which  are  found 
in  nearly  every  list  generally  recommended  for  use  in  Great 
Britain. 

Rye  grass  was  the  first  true  grass  recommended  for  cultivation 
more  thai*  200  years  ago,  and  has  been  most  extensively  recom- 
mended by  seedsmen  and  used  by  farmers  generally  for  perma- 
nent grass  lands.  It  is  still  much  used,  but  some  of  them  agree 
with  Mr.  DeLaune,  that  it  is  one  of  the  least  desirable  for  such 
purposes.  This  slow  progress  and  the  following  of  an  old  custom  is 
more  than  matched  by  the  following  in  reference  to  the  practice 
of  medicine. 

Some  years  ago,  Dr.  0.  W.  Holmes,  of  Harvard,  said:  "Doc- 
tors have  been  using  common  elder  as  a  remedy  for  more  than 
2,000  years,  and  have  just  found  out  that  it  possesses  no  medicinal 
value  whatever." 

The  fact  is,  the  farmers  of  Great  Britain  seem  to  rely  largely 
on  the  recommendations  of  seedsmen  as  to  what  sorts  and  how 
much  they  shall  sow.  These  men  naturally  put  in  a  liberal 


232  LIST  OF  GEASSES  FOR  THE   NORTH. 

allowance  of  seeds  which  are  easily  obtained  at  a  cheap  rate, 
especially  if  such  seeds  start  soon  and  make  a  rapid  growth 
which  soon  covers  the  ground.  Many  of  their  mixtures  contain 
the  Italian  rye  grass,  which  generally  lasts  for  one  year  only.  It 
makes  a  fine  growth  for  a  while,  and  after  taking  the  cream  of 
the  soil  quickly  perishes,  leaving  vacancies  on  impoverished  land 
for  other  grasses  or,  more  likely,  for  weeds  to  come  in  and 
occupy. 

List  of  Grasses  for  the  North. — The  writer  approaches  this 
subject  with  some  want  of  confidence  on  account  of  the  great 
size  of  our  country,  the  diversity  of  soils,  climate,  and  uses,  the 
lack  of  well  conducted  and  accurately  reported  experiments.  He 
will,  therefore,  not  puzzle  the  farmers  with  numerous  long  lists  of 
mixtures,  on  a  guess,  but  give  a  few  of  the  best  and  advise  exper- 
imenting for  themselves.  A  point  is  gained  when  a  farmer  ven- 
tures to  deviate  from  the  long  established  customs  of  his  fathers 
or  his  neighbors,  many  of  whom  have  fallen  into  certain  practices 
without  very  good  reasons  therefor. 

The  lists  are  recommended  for  climates  similar  to  that  of 
Michigan. 

In  selecting  seeds  for  alternate  husbandry,  only  those  grasses 
and  clovers  should  be  sown  which  rapidly  make  a  large  growth, 
and  arrive  at  muturity  in  a  short  time : 

Grasses  and  Clovers  for  One  Year. 

Dactylis  glomerata  (Orchard  grass). 
Zea  Mays  (Indian  corn). 
Secale  cereale  (Rye). 
Avena  sativa  (Oats). 
Panicum  mihaceum  (Millet). 

Seteria  Italica  (Hungarian  grass,  Bengal  grass,  sometimes 
called  Millet). 

Lolium  Italicum  (Italian  rye-grass). 


LIST  OF  GRASSES  FOR  THE  NORTH.  283 

Arrlienatherum  avenaceum  (Tall  oat-grass). 
TrifoUum  pratense  (Red  clover). 

Grasses  and  Clovers  for  Two  Years. 

Dactylis  glomerata  (Orchard  grass). 

Phleum  pratense  (Timothy), heavy  aud  loamy  soils,  not  on  sand. 

Arrlienatherum  avenaceum  (Tall  oat-grass). 

Festuca  elatior  (Taller  fescue),  heavy  and  loamy  soils. 

Festuca pratensis  (Meadow  fescue),  heavy  and  loamy  soils. 

Lolium  perenne  (Perennial  rye-grass). 

TrifoUum  pratense  (Red  clover). 

Trifolium  repens  (White  clover). 

TrifoUum  hybridum  (Alsike  clover). 

Grasses  and  Clovers  for  Three  or  more  Years. 

Dactylis  glomerata  (Orchard  grass). 

Arrlienatherum  avenaceum  (Tall  oat-grass). 

Festuca  elatior  (Tall  fescue). 

Festuca  pratensis  (Meadow  fescue). 

Alopecur -us  pratensis  (Meadow  fox-tail). 

Phleum  pratense  (Timothy),  for  mowing  only. 

Poa  pratensis  (June  grass,  Blue  grass  of  Kentucky),  for 
pasture  only. 

Agrostis  vulgaris  (Red  top),  for  rich  loam  or  low  land. 

Lolium  perenne  (Perennial  rye-grass),  the  larger  varieties. 

TrifoUum  pratense  perenne  (Perennial  red  clover,  Cow  grass 
of  the  English). 

TrifoUum  hybridum  (Alsike  clover). 

TrifoUum  repens  (White  clover),  for  pasture  only. 

Grasses  for  Marshes. 

Agrostis  vulgaris  (Red  top). 
Festuca  pratensis  (Meadow  fescue). 
Festuca  elatior  (Tall  fescue). 
30 


284  GRASSES  FOR  THE  SOUTH. 

Poa  serotina  (Fowl  meadow). 

Poa  pratensis  (June  grass,  Blue  grass  of  Kentucky). 

Alopecurus  pratensis  (Meadow  foxtail). 

Deyeuxia  (Calamagrastis),  Canadensis  (Blue  joint). 

Concerning  a  selection  for  central  Kansas,  Professor  Shelton 
remarks :  "  For  pasture,  I  have  no  hesitation  in  recommending 
the  following  sorts,  placing  them  in  the  order  of  their  importance : 
orchard  grass,  alfalfa,  red  clover,  taller  fescue,  Kentucky  blue 
grass.  For  mowing  purposes,  our  experience  has  shown,  very 
steadily,  that  alfalfa,  red  clover,  taller  fescue,  perhaps  meadow 
oat-grass,  and  Timothy  are  the  best.  So  far  as  the  matter  of 
withstanding  the  effects  of  drought  is  concerned,  these  sorts  rank, 
with  us,  in  about  the  following  order :  alfalfa,  orchard  grass,  red 
clover,  meadow  oat-grass,  Kentucky  blue  grass,  taller  fescue,  and 
Timothy.  Along  the  eastern  borders  of  the  State,  and  for  thirty 
or  more  miles  west  of  the  Missouri  line,  Kentucky  blue  grass  and 
Timothy  are  standard  grasses  which  uniformly  produce  bounti- 
ful crops  of  hay  and  pasture,  while  in  our  experience  in  the 
central  part  of  the  State  these  grasses  have  uniformly  failed." 

Prof.  I.  P.  Roberts,  of  New  York,  says :  "  We  have  tried  in  a 
small  way  many  of  the  grasses  and  clovers  in  past  years,  and  as 
yet  we  find  nothing  that  gives  as  good  satisfaction  as  medium 
red  clover  and  Timothy.  The  seed  dealers  may  'boom*  the  tall, 
coarse,  reedy  grasses  or  the  tender,  dwarf,  creeping  varieties, 
nevertheless,  in  New  York,  clover  and  Timothy  have  come  to 
stay." 

Grasses  for  the  South. — In  man}  portions  of  the  southern 
States,  the  people  are  still  ignorant  of  the  best  grasses.  They 
have  long  been  wedded  to  cotton  and  have  learned  to  believe  that 
grasses  and  clovers  will  not  thrive  in  their  country. 

In  numerous  places  it  has  already  been  proved  that  many 
grasses  and  clovers  grow  well  and  produce  abundantly. 

The  South  possesses  great  advantages  over  the  North  in  raising 


GRASSES  FOR  THE  SOUTH.  335 

live  stock,  as  the  winters  are  so  short  and  mild  little  hay  need  be 
cut  and  stored. 

Rev.  C.  W.  Howard  of  Georgia,  J.  B.  Killebrew  of  Tennessee, 
and  Dr.  D.  L.  Phares  of  Mississippi,  have  each  written  valuable 
books  concerning  grasses  for  the  South,  and  these  books  have 
been  well  received  and  extensively  purchased. 

Mr.  Howard  says :  "  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  rich  lands 
in  upper  Georgia,  in  which  a  mixed  husbandry  prevails,  have 
rather  increased  in  value  than  decreased  since  the  war.  The 
depression  in  price  has  occurred  only  in  lands  devoted  to  exclusive 
cotton  and  rice  culture,,  both  of  which  require  a  large  amount  of 
labor.  In  the  South  land  is  very  very  cheap,  while  at  the  North 
land  ranges  from  $50  to  $200  per  acre.  He  looks  to  England, 
Holland,  or  Belgium,,  and  finds  it  averaging  from  $300  to  $500 
per  acre.  Why  this  difference?  Is  the  land  in  these  countries 
better  than  ours?  Not  by  nature;  if  it  be  better  it  is  by  the  dif- 
ference in  treatment.  Is  their  climate  better  than  ours?  The 
acknowledged  superiority  is  on  our  side.  Are  the  prices  of  their 
products  any  better  than  ours?  On  an  average  not  so  good. 
Are  their  taxes  lighter  than  ours?  i'f  we  were  compelled  to  pay 
their  tax,  either  at  the  Korth  or  in  England  our  land  would  at 
once  be  sold  for  taxes,,  Have  they  valuable  crops  which  they 
can  raise  and  which  we  cannot  raise?  There  is  not  a  farm 
product  in  either  old  or  new  England  which  we  cannot  raise  in 
equal  perfection  at  the  South.  Is  their  labor  cheaper  than  ours? 
The  cost  of  labor  at  the  North  nearly  doubles  the  cost  of  labor  at 
the  South.  If,  then,  all  these  things  are  so,  why  is  it  that  their 
land  is  so  valuable  and  ours  so  valueless?  If  we  take  the  map  of 
the  United  States  and  put  our  finger  upon  the  State  or  parts  of 
States  in  which  land  sells  at  the  highest  price,  we  shall  find  that 
in  those  States  or  parts  of  States  the  greatest  attention  is  paid  to 
the  cultivation  of  the  grasses  and  forage  plants.  If  we  open  the 
map  of  Europe  we  shall  find  the  same  rule  holds  good.  The 


386  GRASSES  FOR  THE  SOUTH. 

cheapest  lands  in  Europe  are  those  of  Spain,  where  little  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  grasses.  Holland  is  almost  a  continuous 
meadow,  and  their  land  sometimer  reaches  $1,000  per  acre. 

"  A  Belgian  gentleman,  who  sold  his  land  in  Belgium  for  $500 
per  acre,  and  bought  river  bottom  land  in  Floyd  county,  Georgia, 
at  $20  per  acre,  told  the  writer  that  he  made  more  on  the  Belgium 
farm,  valuing  it  at  $500  per  acre,  under  the  Belgium  system, 
than  he  did  on  the  Georgia  land  at  :$20  per  acre,  under  the 
Georgia  system  of  cotton  and  corn.  He  even  believed  that  clover 
and  grasses  would  not  grow  in  Georgia,  and  therefore  did  not 
attempt  the  Belgium  system. 

"  If  more  of  the  land  were  in  grass,  much  less  labor  would  be 
required  to  manage  it.  To  the  wearied  business  man  there  is 
something  charming  in  the  thought  of  broad  acres,  a  few  select 
laborers,  green  grass,  cool  shades,  running  water,  thrifty  live 
stock,  and  all  the  abundance  of  "the  farm. 

"  A  small,  well  manured,  and  well  cultivated  area  of  land  in  cot- 
ton and  the  cereals,  with  a  large  proportion  of  forage  plants  and 
grasses,  would  give  to  the  cotton  planter  a  pleasure  in  his  busi- 
ness, and  an  amount  of  real  profit  which  he  has  never  before 
known." 

Killebrew  says :  "  These  are  more  applicable  to  Tennessee  than 
to  Georgia.  A  stranger  appears  in  the  country  desirous  of  invest- 
ing in  land,  and  while  he  would  turn  from  the  cotton  plantation 
at  ten  or  twelve  dollars  per  acre,  he  would  gladly  invest  in  the 
grass  farm  at  forty  or  fifty.  Grasses  mean  less  labor,  less  worry, 
fewer  hands,  more  enjoyment,  finer  stock,  and  more  charming 
homes,  and  as  a  consequence,  happier  families,  more  education, 
more  taste  and  refinement,  and  a  higher  elevation  of  the  moral 
character. " 

Will  the  cultivated  grasses  and  forage  plants  grow  at  the  South  ? 

In  reply  to  this  question,  we  read  again  from  Mr.  Howard : 
"There  are  some  portions  of  the  South,  as  is  the  case  in  all 


GRASSES  FOR  THE  SOUTH.  337 

countries,  where  the  valuable  grasses  will  not  grow,  but  as  com- 
pared Avith  the  Northern  States,  the  climate  of  the  South  is  cer- 
tainly better  adapted  to  grass  culture,  if  we  take  into  considera- 
tion the  whole  year.  At  the  North,  during  the  whole  winter 
and  late  in  the  spring,  the  ground  is  hard  frozen  or  covered 
with  snow.  Of  course,  during  that  period  the  grass  is  useless, 
and  this  constitutes  a  large  portion  of  the  year.  The  heat  and 
dry  weather  of  the  summer  are  the  drawbacks  to  grass  culture  at 
the  South.  But  these  affect  summer  pasture  alone.  They  do 
not  affect  the  hay  crop.  Clover  and  hay  grasses  are  cut  before 
dry  weather  sets  in.  The  hay  crop  at  the  South  will  not  be 
injured  one  year  in  twenty  by  dry  weather  in  the  spring.  We  do 
not  know  a  country  more  favored  in  this  particular.  In  England, 
while  the  grass  grows  luxuriantly  in  the  spring,  it  is  very  uncer- 
tain whether  there  will  be  enough  dry  weather  at  the  proper 
time  to  save  the  hay.  "We,  on  the  contrary,  always  have  rain 
enough  in  the  spring  to  mature  the  grass,  and.  not  enough  rain 
to  render  the  hay  harvest  at  all  precarious.  When  the  hay  is 
cut,  will  not  the  July  and  August  sun  kill  the  grass?  There  is 
danger  of  this  result  if  live  stock  are  turned  upon  the  meadow  as 
soon  as  the  hay  is  hauled  out,  and  the  grass  is  grazed  close  to  the 
ground.  A  meadow  at  the  South  should  never  be  grazed  during 
the  summer.  The  aftermath  will  protect  the  roots  of  grasses 
during  summer. 

"  After  fall  rains  set  in  and  cool  weather  begins,  the  meadows 
may  be  moderately  grazed  in  dry  but  never  in  wet  weather. 
With  some  grasses  this  grazing  may  be  continued  during  all  the 
dry  weather  of  the  winter.  This  winter  grazing  is  the  great 
advantage  of  the  South.  It  more  than  compensates  for  the 
drought  and  heat  of  summer.  It  saves,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
the  cost  of  cutting  and  curing  hay,  and  of  the  construction  of 
expensive  barns.  At  the  North,  cattle  and  sheep  are  shut  up  in 


238  GRASSES  FOR  THE  SOUTH. 

great  barns  for  six  months  of  the  year,  requiring  costly  feed  and 
attention. 

"  At  the  South,  in  each  of  the  plantation  States,  we  have  three 
different  climates— that  of  the  mountains,  the  interior,  and  the 
coast.  For  live  stock,  the  mountains  have  the  advantage  in 
summer,  the  low  country  in  winter,  while  the  middle  country 
has  a  share  of  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  both  without  the 
special  excellencies  or  defects  of  either.  As  a  general  rule,  a 
clay  soil  is  best  suited  to  growing  grass.  Any  land  that  will 
bring  good  wheat  will  bring  good  clover,  and  any  land  that  will 
bring  good  oats  will  bring  good  grass.  The  lands  most  likely  to 
produce  heavy  crops  of  Timothy  and  herd's  grass  (red  top)  hay 
are  the  rice  lands  of  the  coast.  They  are  very  rich  and  have 
ample  command  of  water.  Do  the  rice  planters  know  that  the 
grass  lands  of  Lombardy,  near  Milan,  where  irrigation  is  prac- 
ticed, rent  for  from  $6  to  $100  per  acre,  while  hay  sells  at  $10 
per  ton?  A  level  surface  of  upland,  without  running  water, 
with  an  excess  of  sand,  is  the  most  unsuitable  for  a  grass  farm, 
and  of  course  for  stock  raising. 

"The  writer  has  seen  the  various'useful  forage  plants  and  grasses 
tried  from  the  mountains  to  the  coast  of  Georgia.  He  has  been 
closely  observing  in  regard  to  this  important  interest  for  more 
than  twenty  years.  As  a  conclusion  he  does  not  hesitate  to  say 
if  ground  be  made  sufficiently  rich  and  as  well  prepared,  that  if 
judgment  be  exercised  in  sowing  and  in  adaptation  of  species  to 
particular  locality,  and  proper  subsequent  management  be 
observed,  that  so  far  as  soil  and  climate  be  concerned  the  South 
has  unusual  fitness  for  successful  cultivation  of  the  valuable 
grasses.  The  grass  of  the  South  will  have  some  difficulties  to 
contend  with,  but  none  so  formidable  as  those  which  are  incident 
to  cotton  and  wheat.  Broom-sedge,  and  crab-grass  in  the  stub- 
ble, gives  excellent  summer  pasture.  Bermuda  grass  is  excellent 


GRASSES  FOR   WINTER  PASTURES  AT  THE  SOUTH.       239 

for  summer.  In  the  whole  range  of  southern  agriculture  there 
is  no  crop  on  which  manure  pays  as  well  as  on  winter  pastures. 

"On  the  whole,  the  drawbacks  to  successful  grass  culture  at 
the  South  are  as  few  and  as  easily  removed  as  in  any  portion  of 
Christendom.  Sound  political  economy  requires  that  the  South 
should  raise  its  own  horses,  mules,  sheep,  cattle,  and  hogs,  and 
produce  its  own  wool,  butter,  cheese,  and  hay.  Grass  culture  is 
the  basis  of  this  independence." 

In  other  portions  of  this  work  will  be  found  quotations  from 
Mr.  Howard  in  reference  to  lucerne,  sainfoin,  field  pea,  vetch, 
red  clover,  alsike  clover,  white  clover,  millet,  gamma  grass,  crab 
grass,  brome  grass,  Bermuda  grass,  meadow  oat-grass,  orchard 
grass,  Italian  rye-grass,  blue  grass,  Timothy,  red  top. 

Mr.  Howard  believes,  and  rightly,  too,  that  none  of  the  native 
Texas  grasses  are  equal,  either  for  hay  or  pasturage,  to  some  of 
the  artificial  grasses  now  in  cultivation. 

Grasses  for  Winter  Pasture  at  the  South.— The  late  C. 
W.  Howard,  of  Georgia,  recommends  meadow  oat-grass,  blue 
grass,  wild  rye  (species  doubtful),  orchard  grass,  red  and  white 
clover. 

Dr.  D.  L.  Phares,  of  Mississippi  says :  "  The  list  depends  on 
whether  the  pasture  is  for  one  season  or  for  permanent  pasture, 
as  well  as  on  location,  soil,  drainage,  etc.  For  a  single  winter, 
sow  wild  brome  grass  (Bromus  unioloides).  Several  other  plants 
furnish  good  winter  pasture,  but  none  are  so  valuable  as  bar- 
ley, though  I  have  tried  wheat,  oats  and  rye.  It  does  not  lie  on 
the  ground  like  rye,  but  stands  up." 

For  further  remarks  concerning  grasses  which  are  suited  to 
pastures  and  meadows,  consult  what  is  said  in  regard  to  each  of 
the  several  species  usually  cultivated. 


240  PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL  AND  SEEDING, 

CHAPTER     X. 
PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL  AND  SEEDING. 

Drainage. — The  advantages  of  drainage  are  many,  even  for 
growing  grass,  though  it  is  probably  true  that  grass  land  does  not 
require  to  be  drained  as  thoroughly  as  that  which  is  arable. 
Drainage  prevents  damage  from  flooding  for  long  periods  when 
not  desired.  It  is  a  protection  against  drought;  it  enables  the 
grasses  to  start  earlier  in  spring  and  grow  later  in  autumn;  it 
deepens  the  soil  and  prevents  baking  in  dry  weather ;  it  allows 
the  plant  to  receive  greater  benefit  from  fertilizers  applied  to  the 
soil ;  it  allows  air  to  penetrate  the  soil ;  it  prevents  frost  from 
heaving  out  the  plants ;  it  makes  hauling  of  loads  easier,  and 
renders  the  land  less  liable  to  injury  from  the  treading  of  cattle; 
it  improves  the  better  grasses,  which  thereby  encroach  on  those 
of  less  value,  including  many  sedges,  rushes  and  useless  weeds. 
Much  of  our  grass  land,  especially  that  in  permanent  pasture 
and  meadow,  would  be  vastly  improved  by  thorough  drainage. 

If  water,  in  a  wet  season,  stand  nearer  than  two  feet  of  the 
surface  in  a  small  hole  dug  in  the  ground,  the  land  needs 
draining. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — Strong,  deep,  calcarous  soil,  with 
a  clay  subsoil,  is  the  best  adapted  for  our  most  nutritious  grasses. 

It  is  most  important  that  the  land  be  clean,  finely  pulverized 
and  of  good  tilth  when  the  seeds  are  sown.  If  the  land  can  be 
lightly  harrowed  immediately  before  sowing  the  seeds  or  imme- 
diately after,  the  seeds  will  be  more  likely  to  get  a  good  'start. 
A  brush  harrow  is  a  very  good  substitute  for  a  light  one  with 
slanting  steel  teeth. 

How  Much  Seed  to  Sow. — That  depends  on  the  size  and 
vitality  of  the  seed,  the  number  of  seeds  to  the  bushel,  the  con- 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL  AND  SEEDING.  341 

dition  of  the  land,  whether  distributed  evenly,  and  the  nature  of 
the  season  that  is  to  follow.  By  consulting  the  table  which 
gives  the  number  of  seeds  to  the  ounce,  and  a  little  calculation, 
it  will  be  seen  how  thickly  the  grass  would  grow  provided  every 
seed  produced  a  plant. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  it  would  be  better,  in  most  cases, 
if  farmers  used  less  seed  to  the  acre  and  took  more  pains  to  get 
the  land  in  better  condition.  Suppose  we  sow  12  quarts  of 
Timothy  seed  and  4  pounds  of  red  clover  to  the  acre.  This  will 
make  18,944,000  seeds  of  Timothy  and  6,024,000  seeds  of  clover, 
a  total  of  24,968,000  seeds,  or  about  4  seeds  to  the  square  inch. 
Using  finer  seeds  in  mixtures,  as  prescribed  by  some  of  the 
English  people,  they  often  sow  from  50,000,000  to  100,000,000 
seeds  to  the  acre,  or  not  far  from  8  to  16  seeds  to  each  square 
inch.  In  either  case  there  can  be  room  for  only  a  small  portion 
of  the  plants  should  all  the  seeds  grow  and  thrive. 

Where  the  plants  are  crowded  closely  together,  the  stems  of 
grasses  and  clovers  are  more  slender  and  less  likely  to  become 
woody.  There  is  probably  no  danger  of  sowing  too  much  seed, 
excepting  in  the  matter  of  economy.  If  the  young  plants  are  too 
numerous,  the  stronger  will  soon  starve  and  crowd  out  the 
weaker. 

Under  favorable  circumstances  one  seed  produces  a  plant 
which  "tillers"  and  contains  a  large  number  of  culms.  Even 
with  the  best  of  chances,  there  will  be  much  loss  of  seeds  and 
young  plants,  what  proportion  no  one  can  tell.  The  seeds  should 
be  well  grown,  well  harvested,  well  cleaned,  and  true  to  name. 
Some  experimenter  in  Great  Britain  found  1,100  plants  (probably 
culms)  to  a  square  foot  of  good  meadow  land,  and  on  water 
meadows  the  number  was  increased  to  1,800  plants. 

Sinclair  found  from  634  to  1,798  distinct  rooted  plants  of 
various  species  in  one  square  foot  in  nine  separate  localities. 
Where  rye  grass  grew  alone,  there  were  only  75  plants.  In  a  well 
31 


242  PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL  AND  SEEDING. 

manured  water  meadow,  there  were  1,702  grasses  and  96  clovers 
and  other  plants.  The  smaller  the  number  of  species  the  smaller 
is  the  number  of  distinct  plants  to  the  square  foot.  In  the  words 
of  I.  A.  Lapham,  "  Much  caution  must  be  used  in  applying  tho 
rules  laid  down  in  books  (or  given  in  practice)  for  the  culture 
and  management  of  grasses." 

There  always  will  bo  an  opportunity  for  the  farmer  to  experi- 
ment and  use  all  the  good  judgment  at  his  command.  In 
connection  with  the  account  of  each  grass  recommended  for  culti- 
vation is  given  the  amount  usually  sown  to  the  acre,  provided 
only  one  kind  \vere  used. 

The  following  is  by  Prof.  J.  AV.  Sanborn,  of  Missouri,  formerly 
of  New  Hampshire,  and  like  the  six  following  is  from  the  Rural 
New  Yorker: 

"  The  amount  of  seed  should  vary  from  six  quarts  to  about  as 
many  bushels.  The  poorer  the  farming  and  the  more  dishonest 
the  seed  dealer,  the  more  seed  will  be  required.  Given  a  soil  in  fine 
tilth — that  is,  plowed  well,  harrowed  by  a  harrow  that  lifts  and 
pulverizes  it,  is  smoothed  off  and  fined  with  a  harrow  on  the 
Thomas  Harrow  principle ;  if  the  seed  is  brushed  in  with  a  light 
brush-harrow,  and  if  the  soil  is  an  open  one,  or  if  it's  a  little 
dry,  rolled ;  if  the  Seed  is  home  raised,  or  not  over  a  year  old,  and 
well  kept,  and  the  soil  is  fat  with  good  available  plant  food — six 
quarts  of  Timothy  or  six  pounds  of  clover  will  seed  an  acre. 
Per  contra,  if,  instead  of  a  fine,  rich  soil  open  to,  and  inviting 
tiny  rootlets  in  all  directions,  we  have  a  cloddy  soil,  plowed 
badly  when  wet,  half  tilled,  where  dry  lumps  repel  the  minute 
roots  of  the  small  seeds  of  grass,  and  where  cavities  are  dry  and, 
of  course,  foodless;  if  the  seed  used  is  poorly  preserve!  or  has 
been  moist,  and  has  heated,  and  if  to  it,  when  fresh,  is  added  the 
seed  of  the  past  and  of  the  previous  year,  and  so  on,  "  ad  infin- 
itum,"  and  if  the  soil  is  as  poor  as  Job's  turkey,  then  an  unlim- 
ited amount  of  seed  will  be  needed,  and  no  amount  will  be  enough 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL  AND  SEEDING.  243 

for  a  good  crop  of  grass.  I  use  twelve  quarts  of  Timothy  and  ten 
pounds  of  clover  seed  per  acre  with  good  success,  and  deem  this 
amount  desirable.  As  my  farming  is  rotation  of  crops,  I  seldom 
sow  Timothy  and  clover  together." 

Gen.  William  G.  LeDuc,  of  Minnesota,  gives  the  following 
opinion :  "As  to  the  amount  of  seed  per  acre,  an  ideal  meadow  for 
me,  in  this  soil  and  climate,  would  with  present  experience,  start 
three  Timothy  and  two  clover  plants  to  every  square  inch  of 
surface.  So  six  pounds  of  Timothy  and  eight  pounds  of  clover, 
if  good,  sound  seed,  distributed  evenly  over  an  acre  and  fortu- 
nate in  time  and  conditions  of  planting,  according  to  my  experi- 
ence, give  a  good  stand  and  lay  the  foundation  for  a  good 
meadow." 

Prof.  E.  M.  Shelton,  of  Kansas,  writes :  "If  for  pasturage,  use 
one  bushel  each  to  the  acre  of  orchard  grass  and  Kentucky  blue, 
to  which  six  or  eight  quarts  of  medium  red  clover  may  well  be 
added.  Liberal  seeding  is  necessary  if  land  is  not  first  class 
either  in  quality  or  mechanical  condition,  to  allow  for  lost  seed. 
And  if  the  land  is  in  first  rate  order,  liberal  seeding  pays  well  in 
a  clo#e,  even  sod. 

"A  late  crop  can  be  obtained  from  mixing  red-top  and  Kentucky 
blue  grass,  a  bushel  of  each,  rnd  if  the  land  is  somewhat  light 
and  moist,  Alsike  clover  (say  four  quarts)  may  be  added." 

Prof.  G.  E.  Morrow,  of  Illinois  says :  "  On  our  prairie  soils 
heavy  seeding  has  not  been  found  necessary.  We  aim  to  sow  a 
bushel  of  Timothy  seed  to  four  or  five  acres,  with  a  bushel  of 
clover  seed  to  eight  or  ten  acres.  When  clover  is  sown  alone,  I 
should  sow  about  one  peck  per  acre."  ,.,.;„<-, 

Concerning  the  amount  of  seed  required,  the  following  is  from 
Waldo  F.  Brown,  of  Ohio :  "  Good  hay  is  not  produced  by  thin 
seeding ;  for  the  grasses  will  grow  coarse  and  rank,  whereas  heavy 
seeding  will  give  fine,  soft  hay." 

Prof.  Wm.  Brown,  of  Ontario:     For  rotation,  hay  and  pasture, 


244  PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL  AND  SEEDING. 

sows  fifteen  pounds  of  grass  and  eight  pounds  of  clover  seed  per 
acre. 

Daniel  Batchelor,  of  New  York,  recommends  a  bushel  and  a 
half  of  orchard  grass  and  half  a  bushel  of  tall  oat-grass. 

"A  heavy  but  not  wet,  clay  loam  devoted  to  meadow,  should  be 
sown  with  Timothy,  red-top,  fowl  meadow,  rough-stalked  meadow, 
and  Italian  rye,  at  the  rate  of  about  six  pounds  each  to  the  acre, 
in  a  mixture;  to  this  may  be  added  three  pounds  of  medium 
clover. 

"For  a  wet,  peaty,  black  soil:  Eough-stalked  meadow,  six 
pounds;  red  top,  eight  pounds;  meadow  foxtail,  four  pounds, 
and  Alsike,  six  pounds,  would  be  a  good  mixture  per  acre. 

"For  land  much  shaded  the  following  mixture  is  excellent :  One 
bushel  of  orchard  grass,  one  of  meadow  oat-grass,  and  five  or  six 
pounds  of  wood  meadow  grass  to  the  acre." 

For  New  England,  A.  W.  Cheever  recommends  the  following: 
"  If  Timothy  be  sown  alone  we  do  not  consider  a  bushel  of  seed 
any  too  much  for  an  acre.  Of  red-top  we  would  sow  at  least  two 
bushels.  Of  orchard  grass,  two  bushels,  and  a  bushel  of  June 
grass  with  it.  Ehode  Island  bent  requires  less  seed  by  measure 
than  red-top,  as  the  seed  is  usually  much  less  chaffy.  No  rule 
need  be  given  for  clover,  so  much  depends  upon  the  amount 
of  seed  contained  in  the  land,  and  in  the  mcnure  applied." 

Professor  S.  A.  Knapp  recommends  for  Iowa  and  similar  soils 
and  climates,  for  early  and  late  pasture,  the  following  mixture : 


Lbs. 
Bluegrass. 8 


Lbs. 
Orchard  grass 6 

White  clover...  1 


Timothy 

For  summer  pasture : 

Lbs.|  Lbs. 

Timothy 6       Red  clover 4 

Orchard  grass 8| 

For  permanent  dairy  pastures  on  most  heavy  soils  of  the  East, 
Sibley  &  Co.  recommend: 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL  AND  SEEDING.  245 


Lbs.i 

Perennial  rye-grass 5 

Blue  grass 3 

Orchard  grass 3 

Meadow  fescue -     3 


Meadow  foxtail 3 

Red  clover.. 2 

White  clover..- 1 

Alsike  clover...  1 


For  the  lighter  soils  of  the  North  and  East,  they  suggest  the 
following : 


Lbs. 
Timothy 5 

Taller  oat  grass.. 10 

Rhode  Island  bent.. .          ,.„ 4 


Lbs. 

White  clover.. 1 

Red  clover... 3 

Alsike  clover 1 


Orchard  grass 3 

For  wet  soils  in  the  North,  they  suggest : 


Lbs. 


Blue  grass 5 

Red-to^ 5 

Fowl  meadow  grass 4 


Lbs. 
Rye  or  Ray-grass 4 

Alsike  clover 1 

White  clover...  1 


Sowing  the  Seed. — The  usual  practice  in  many  portions  of 
the  Northern  States  is  to  sow  the  seeds  of  the  grasses  in  early 
autumn  with  a  crop  of  winter  wheat  or  rye,  or  to  sow  after  these 
crops  have  been  growing  for  a  few  weeks. 

The  clovers  are  sown  in  early  spring,  because  the  young  plants 
are  likely  to  winter  kill  if  seeds  are  sown  in  autumn. 

The  following  is  from  Professor  E.  M.  Shelton,  of  Kansas: 
"  The  time  to  sow  grass  seed  is,  we  believe,  without  any  excep- 
tion, in  the  spring ;  and  recent  experiments  show  that  this  work 
should  not  be  undertaken  too  early  in  the  season.  In  the  spring 
of  1880,  a  field  seeded  early  in  April  came  to  nothing,  the  violent 
dry  winds  that  followed  the  sowing  completely  sweeping  the  seed 
away.  Seed  sowed  after  the  spring  rains  have  fairly  set  in,  has 
never  failed  since  1874  to  give  a  good  stand  of  grass.  In  a  few 
instances,  and  where  the  winter  following  has  proved  warm  and 
open,  we  have  had  good  success  with  Timothy  and  clover  sowed 
in  the  fall ;  but  the  result  of  sowing  orchard  grass,  alfalfa,  and 
blue  grass  in  the  fall,  has  been  almost  invariably  disastrous. 
Our  experience  with  grass  seeds  sown  in  the  fall  has  been  this: 


246  PREPARATION  OF  THE  SOIL  AND  SEEDING. 

they  germinate  readily,  even  more  quickly  than  in  the  spring, 
but,  as  the  native  vegetation  fails  from  the  action  of  frosts,  the 
common  grasshoppers  collect  upon  the  young  grass,  doing  it 
serious  damage;  what  remains  suffers  seriously,  and  is  often 
quite  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the  winter  frosts  and  violent 
winds  of  early  spring.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  seeding  is 
done  very  late  in  the  spring,  the  young  and  tender  plants  are 
consumed  by  the  sun  as  fast  as  they  appear  above  the  ground. 
Seed  sown  any  time  during  the  month  of  April  will  rarely  fail  to 
germinate  and  make  a  vigorous  growth.  However,  we  cannot 
advise  seeding,  as  we  have  before  said,  until  the  warm  spring 
rains  have  set  in.  "We  have  sown  both  alfalfa  and  orchard  grass 
during  the  early  part  of  May  with  uniformly  excellent  results." 

Mr.  Howard,  of  Georgia,  prefers  August  and  early  September 
as  the  best  time  for  sowing  seeds.  There  is  usually  sufficient 
rain  at  that  season  to  cause  the  seeds  to  germinate.  The  young 
plants  will  have  time  to  make  sufficient  root  to  stand  the  severest 
cold  of  winter.  Clover  and  lucerne,  and  several  of  the  grasses, 
if  sown  without  grain  at  this  season  in  the  South  will  give  a  cut- 
ting in  the  following  spring.  Grass  seed  sown  late  in  the  fall  is 
liable  to  bo  winter  killed. 

If  one  could  know  the  nature  of  the  season  to  follow,  he  would 
much  prefer  to  sow  grass  seeds  in  a  dry  day  preceding  mild, 
moist  weather.  It  is  hardly  safe  to  give  fixed  rules  for  the  sowing 
of  grass  seeds.  Where  several  kinds  of  seeds  are  sown,  it  is  well 
to  sow  those  of  equal  weight  and  size  together,  going  over  the 
field  again  with  the  heavier  sorts. 

An  experienced  person  on  a  still  day  will  sow  small  seeds  quite 
evenly  by  hand,  but  we  now  have  several  kinds  of  light  machines, 
accompanied  with  directions  for  use,  which  will  distribute  the 
seeds  more  evenly  than  can  bo  done  by  hand.  If  there  is  much 
to  be  sown,  the  cost  of  a  good  machine  will  be  more  than 
saved  by  sowing  the  seeds  in  a  better  manner.  If  evenly  dis- 


SEEDING  TO  GRASS.  247 

tributed,  less  seed  will  be  required.  For  sowing  by  a  machine, 
the  seeds  should  be  well  cleaned  and  freed  from  leaves  and  straws 
and  the  machine  frequently  examined  to  see  that  the  seed  is  pass- 
ing through  evenly. 

Where  the  soil  is  loamy,  sandy,  or  light,  it  is  an  excellent  plan 
to  roll  the  surface  after  seeding.  This  process  brings  the  soil  in 
close  contact  with  the  seed  and  renders  it  more  likely  to  germinate. 

Seeding  by  Inoculation. — This  is  rarely  practiced,  but  has 
sometimes  been  resorted  to  in  England.  It  consists  in  cutting 
ropes  of  turf  from  an  old  pasture,  and  these  are  chopped  up  into 
pieces  about  1£  by  2  inches.  They  are  placed  by  hand  about 
nine  inches  apart  over  the  ground.  This  is  for  meadow  what 
sodding  is  for  a  lawn.  The  results  are  quick  and  sure,  but  rather 
expensive. 

Quack  grass,  Bermuda  grass,  and  Johnson  grass  are  often 
seeded  by  scattering  or  planting  fragments  of  the  rootstalks, 
either  with  a  hoe  or  by  dropping  in  part  of  the  furrows  as  the 
field  is  plowed. 

Seeding  Grass  with  Grain. — The  following  was  prepared 
by  John  J.  Thomas,  of  New  York :  ' e  The  most  rapid  way  of 
obtaining  a  grass  crop  is  to  sow  the  grass  seed  alone  without  any 
grain.  If  done  early  in  the  spring,  on  clean,  well  prepared 
ground,  we  may  get  a  cut  of  hay  the  same  year,  usually  about  two- 
thirds  of  a  full  crop,  and  a  heavy  one  the  second  year.  It  will 
make  a  vast  difference  whether  we  sow  plenty  of  seed 'or  only  a 
small  quantity.  Wo  have  sown  a  mixture  of  Timothy  and  clover 
at  the  rate  of  a  bushel  per  acre,  and  had  about  twice  as  heavy  a 
crop  as  that  afforded  by  a  scant  seeding  of  less  than  a  peck  per 
acre.  It  is  very  important  to  have  it  covered  with  good,  mellow 
earth,  buried  at  a  depth  not  greater  than  five  or  six  times  its 
largest  diameter.  To  grow  freely,  one-fourth  to  one-half  an  inch 
is  deep  enough  in  moist  soil,  but  clover  will  germinate  and  a 
grow  at  a  depth  of  an  inch.  Much  will  depend  on  the  mellow- 


248  SEEDING  TO  GRASS. 

ness  and  richness  of  the  surface  soil.  A  peck  of  seed  will  give  a 
better  growth  on  a  fine,  fertile  surface,  than  a  bushel  on  a  hard 
crust  or  among  clods. 

"  A  very  common  cause  of  failure  is  sowing  clover  seed  in  the 
spring,  on  a  heavy  soil,  with  winter  wheat,  where  the  crust  has 
not  been  broken  since  the  previous  September.  Harrowing  the 
surface  with  a  light  harrow  will  make  a  much  better  seed  bed. 
But  if  Timothy  seed  has  been  sown  in  autumn  a  coarse  harrow 
may  tear  it  up. 

"  The  objection  to  sowing  the  grass  alone  is  that  we  are  com- 
pelled to  plow  and  prepare  the  ground  for  a  single  crop,  while 
in  seeding  with  grain  we  obtain  both  grain  and  grass  at  one 
operation,  and  with  economy  of  labor.  Farmers  will  therefore 
commonly  prefer  seeding  with  grain,  except  in  certain  cases 
where  obtaining  an  early  crop  of  grass  is  a  paramount  object. 
By  seeding  with  winter  grain,  if  a  light  top  dressing  of  fine 
manure  was  applied  in  autumn  to  prevent  a  hard  crust,  the  seed 
may  be  sown  as  early  in  spring  as  may  be  desired,  without  wait- 
ing for  any  preparation  of  the  soil,  and  Timothy  may  be  sown 
the  previous  autumn.  Or  if  the  soil  is  likely  to  settle  and 
become  hard,  both  Timothy  and  clover  may  be  sown  together  in 
•  spring,  after  or  before  the  surface  is  brushed  with  a  light  harrow 
which  will  not  injure  the  grain.  Seeding  with  spring  grain,  if 
properly  performed,  has  much  to  recommend  it.  It  always  fur- 
nishes a  freshly  moved  soil  as  a  bed  for  the  seed.  But  caution 
should  be  used  not  to  cover  the  grass  seed  too  deep,  nor  to  sow  a 
thick  and  shading  crop  of  the  grain. 

"  The  best  winter  grain  with  which  to  sow  clover  seed  is  rye. 
It  shades  the  young  crop  less,  and  if  the  work  is  properly  done 
it  rarely  fails  of  entire  success.  On  the  other  hand,  the  seeding 
rarely  succeeds  well  with  a  crop  of  oats,  and  nearly  the  only 
chance  for  success  is  in  sowing  the  oats  thinly,  or  not  to  exceed 


SEEDING  TO  GRASS.  249 

a  bushel  of  seed  to  the  acre.  Spring  wheat  and  barley  are  inter- 
mediate for  the  purpose  between  rye  and  oats. 

"  It  is  usually  more  certain  to  rely  on  a  slight  artificial  cover- 
ing with  soil,  than  the  natural  covering  which  may  or  may  not 
take  place  by  a  shower  of  rain  after  the  action  of  early  spring 
frost,  which,  however,  may  sometimes  succeed  perfectly.  The 
pressure  of  a  common  farm  roller  on  clover  or  grass  seed,  sown 
on  the  freshly  harrowed  soil,  covers  most  of  it  slightly,  and  is 
one  of  the  best  means  for  insuring  germination.  Another  good 
way  to  cover  the  fine  seed  is  to  pass  an  evenly  made  brush  har- 
row over  it.  This  harrow  is  easily  and  cheaply  constructed  by 
placing  several  branches  cut  from  a  thickly  set  tree  side  by  side, 
and  stringing  them  together  by  running  a  stout  stake  through 
the  forks  at  the  cut  ends,  taking  care  that  no  large  projections 
root  into  the  ground  in  passing.  Such  a  harrow,  skillfully  made, 
will  leave  the  ground  nearly  as  smooth  as  a  floor.  After  the 
grain  has  been  removed,  it  is  well  to  look  over  the  field  and  sow 
a  few  more  seeds  where  the  grass  seems  too  thin." 

The  following  upon  this  topic  is  by  Prof.  J.  W.  Sanborn,  of 
Missouri : 

"  I  have  had  but  little  of  the  bitter  experience  complained  of 
by  many  in  sowing  grasses  with  other  crops.  Grass  is,  in  its 
early  stages,  a  slow  grower,  and  I  can  get  good  results  in  grain, 
and  under  the  best  conditions,  a  crop  of  grass  the  first  year.  On 
a  fine  tilth  and  a  fertile  soil,  I  think  few  will  fail  to  secure  good 
grass  with  a  light  seeding  of  grain.  Grass  alone,  sown  in  the 
spring,  is  out-grown  by  the  rapid  growing  annual  weeds,  which 
have  to  be  cut  or  the  misery  of  their  seeding  is  experienced. 

"  For  several  years  on  a  large  farm  I  grew  little  or  nothing 
except  grass.  When  I  had  corn  and  raised  no  other  grain,  I 
sowed  the  grass  occasionally  in  the  corn  after  the  last  hoeing.  I 
have  done  much  seeding  in  August,  and  some  on  the  early  frosts 
of  spring,  or  late  spring  snows  (the  latter  method  is  a  bad  one), 
32 


250  SOWING  GEASS  WITHOUT  GRAIN. 

but  now,  in  a  rotation  system  of  crops,  I  sow  in  the  spring,  and 
meet  with  good  success ;  and  if,  in  any  degree,  I  have  a  failure, 
I  can  sow  again  on  all  thin  spots  after  the  grain  is  off,  and  still 
again  in  the  spring  when  the  frost  is  working  the  ground,  or  in 
the  fall,  after  the  spring  sowing,  on  the  fall  frosts  after  it  is  too 
late  for  germinatien.  These  night  frosts  and  day  thawiugs  open 
and  close  the  ground  and  let  the  seed  in  well,  and,  on  the  whole, 
fall  is  a  good  time  to  sow  for  several  reasons,  when  one  is  deter- 
mined to  sow  grass  seed  alone,  or  when  one  is  sowing  over  dead 
spots  for  new  grass.  It  is  an  important  matter  to  inspect  all 
fields  or  sections  that  need  re-seeding.  Indeed,  an  annual  seed- 
ing of  fields  is  nature's  way,  and  is  often  profitable." 

Sowing  Grass  without  Grain. — At  the  author's  request,  the 
following  was  prepared  by  A.  W.  Cheever,  of  Sheldonville,  Mass. : 

"  Experiments  repeated  time  and  again,  have  convinced  me, 
here  in  east  Massachusetts,  where  grain  crops,  compared  with 
hay,  have  come  to  take  a  secondary  place  in  the  estimation  of 
most  farmers,  grass  sown  alone  is  almost  invariably  worth  more 
the  first  year  than  the  grain  and  straw  together  would  be  if  grain 
were  sown  with  the  grass,  and  the  former  made  the  leading  crop. 

"  This  is  especially  true  where  the  land  is  particularly  adapted 
to  the  production  of  hay.  For  the  past  fifteen  years  I  have  sown 
nearly  all  my  grass  seed  alone,  and  in  no  single  instance  have  I 
been  sorry  I  did  not  sow  grain  with  it  to  afford  protection.  When 
seeding  with  grass  alone,  I  have  generally  cut  two  crops  the  first 
year.  The  first  crop  should  be  cut  rather  early,  even  if  not  fully 
grown.  This  kills  or  checks  many  of  the  annual  weeds. 

"  I  have  often  sowed  the  seed  in  spring,  but  this  is  not  nature's 
time  for  sowing  the  grasses.  Early  autumn  is  undoubtedly  the 
best  time  in  the  whole  year  for  sowing  most  grasses.  If  sown 
then  the  annuals  will  find  themselves  laboring  under  a  disadvan- 
tage and  will  soon  give  up  the  race. 

* <  Grass  sown  in  early  fall  will  produce  as  full  a  crop  the  fol- 


SOWING  GRASS  WITHOUT  GRAIN.  351 

lowing  year  as  it  ever  will,  and  the  quality  will  be  excellent ;  but 
if  sown  in  connection  with  winter  rye  or  wheat,  it  will  be  put 
back  a  whole  year.  The  grain  is  of  no  advantage  to  the  grass 
whatever,  but  rather  the  contrary. 

"  The  only  exception  I  would  make  in  favor  of  sowing  grass 
and  winter  grain  together  is  when  the  grain  is  to  be  cut  early,  as 
Boon  as  it  heads,  for  feeding  green  or  to  make  into  hay.  Cutting 
the  grain  so  early  in  the  spring  gives  time  for  the  grass  to  make 
one  and  sometimes  two  full  crops  the  first  year. 

"On  good,  moist,  rich  land,  I  have  had  excellent  success 
in  seeding  grass  in  spring  upon  green  sward  turned  over  the  pre- 
vious fall  and  the  surface  thoroughly  pulverized  before  winter 
and  again  made  fine  and  mellow  in  spring.  By  this  method, 
grass  land  may  be  kept  producing  full  crops  of  grass  every  year 
without  planting,  but  it  will  need  reseeding  of  tener  than  if  an 
occasional  hoed  crop  is  grown.  Timothy  is  one  of  the  poorest 
kinds  of  grass  for  spring  seeding  without  grain,  but  if  sown  in 
August  it  will  produce  a  full  crop  the  next  summer.  Orchard 
grass  is  one  of  the  best  varieties  for  spring  seeding.  A  great 
amount  of  grass  seed  is  annually  lost  by  sowing  it  in  connection 
with  spring  or  winter  grain ;  the  grain  crops  being  harvested  in 
the  hottest  part  of  the  year,  leaving  the  tender  and  previously 
shaded  grass  plants  to  be  burned  up  leaf  and  root  by  the  scorch- 
ing sun." 

Mr.  Howard,  of  Georgia,  writes:  "There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  sowing  seed  with  grain  should  always  be  avoided.  It  involves 
the  loss  of  a  year  in  either  hay  or  pasture.  If  sown  with  grain, 
when  this  is  cut  the  young  grass  and  clover  are  very  tender,  having 
been  shaded  by  the  grain.  The  cutting  suddenly  exposes  them 
to  the  sun  at  the  hottest  season  of  the  year.  There  is  great 
danger  that  they  will  be  burned  out.  In  the  event  of  sowing 
grass  seed  with  grain,  he  must  always  remember  that  by  so  doing 
he  loses  a  year  and  endangers  the  grass." 


252  SOWING  GRASS  WITHOUT  GRAIN. 

Here  we  insert  the  opinion  of  Daniel  Batchelor,  of  New  York : 
"  Grain  and  grass  have  been  sown  together  so  long  on  some 
meadows  that  they  will  no  longer  bear  good  crops  either  of  grain 
or  grass;  and  there  are  people  who  keep  their  arable  land  in 
crops  as  long  as  they  can  get  anything  off,  and  then  they  seed 
down  to  grass  when  the  soil  is  so  sterile  that  it  will  not  produce 
a  hay  crop.  It  is  not  going  too  far  to  say  that  over  half  the 
grass  and  clover  seed  sown  with  grain  is  smothered  and  utterly 
lost,  and  in  many  instances,  after  the  grain  is  removed,  especially 
if  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry,  there  is  no  hope  for  a  grass  crop 
without  reseeding ;  and  even  where  there  is  a  tolerable  catch  the 
meadow  is  retarded  for  a  whole  season.  I  suppose  some  will 
deem  it  folly,  but  I  think  wisdom  says :  sow  grass  without  any 
other  crops;  sow  it  in  autumn;  if  you  are  in  for  rotation,  put 
all  your  manure  on  your  grass  land,  so  that  when  you  break  up 
the  sod  or  sward  for  corn,  the  land  may  be  found  in  good  heart 
for  the  crop.  Of  course,  there  are  plenty  of  instances  where  the 
land  is  new  or  where  the  fertility  has  been  well  kept  up,  in  which 
full  success  is  obtained  by  growing  grass  and  grain  together. " 

Bead  what  Major  H.  E.  Alvord,  of  Mass.,  says:  "We  suc- 
ceed well  in  sowing  clover  with  oats,  but  prefer  to  cut  off  the 
oats  and  cure  as  hay  while  early  '  in  the  milk. '  We  have  not 
got  out  of  the  ruts  sufficiently  yet  to  prevent  seeding  all  grasses 
and  clovers  used  with  wheat,  rye,  and  oats ;  but  I  do  not  believe 
it  to  be  good  farming  to  try  to  grow  two  crops  on  the  same  land 
at  the  same  time." 

On  this  topic,  read  the  experience  of  Professor  E.  W.  Shelton, 
of  Kansas : 

"Oats,  wheat,  and  rye  are  often  recommended  as  excellent 
crops  with  which  to  sow  grass  seed.  The  argument  is  that  the 
tall  grain  will  shade  and  protect  the  young  grass.  But  grass 
does  not  need  shade  when  sown  in  proper  season ;  it  needs  the 
sun,  and,  especially,  it  needs  moisture,  and  this  the  vigorous 


SOWING  GRASS  WITHOUT  GRAIN.  253 

grain  is  continually  taking  from  the  soil,  thus  robbing  the  young 
grass  plants  from  the  start.  Every  farmer  knows  how  spindling, 
sickly,  and  how  lacking  in  strength  of  root  and  stem,  is  a  grass 
or  clover  plant  growing  in  dense  masses  of  grain.  When  this 
grain  is  harvested  in  June  or  July,  just  when  the  summer's 
heats  are  the  greatest,  the  delicate,  starved  grass  plants  are 
certain  to  perish,  unless  long  continued,  cool,  and  cloudy  weather 
prevent. 

"  We  are  aware  that,  upon  favorable  seasons,  considerable  suc- 
cess is  obtained  by  seeding  the  grasses  with  another  crop.  But, 
even  during  these  favorable  seasons,  a  better  and  more  vigorous 
start  will  be  obtained  without  the  rivalry  of  vigorous  grains; 
and,  upon  dry  seasons,  a  failure  of  the  grass  is  almost  certain, 
when  seeded  with  a  grain  crop." 

In  favor  of  seeding  in  autumn  without  another  crop,  we  may 
say:  the  land  can  be  much  better  fitted  for  grass  in  autumn 
than  in  early  spring.  If  weeds  start  in  autumn  frosts  will  kill 
them,  while  if  the  grass  is  sown  in  spring  the  weeds  keep  grow- 
ing all  summer.  They  may  be  checked,  however,  by  mowing 
when  the  grasses  are  a  few  inches  high.  If  there  are  vacant 
places  they  can  be  reseeded  in  spring.  The  first  hay  crop  will 
be  much  better.  Whatever  plan  is  pursued,  a  failure  or  partial 
failure  may  sometimes  occur. 

All  the  experiments  of  the  writer  indicate  that  in  the  North- 
ern States  young  grasses  thrive  better  when  they  have  the  full 
benefit  of  all  the  sun  and  rain.  The  statement  sometimes  made, 
that  young  grasses  and  clovers  need  the  shade  and  protection  of 
some  larger  plants  has  no  proof  to  sustain  it.  Numerous  cor- 
respondents, without  exception,  in  case  they  have  tried  both 
methods,  speak  of  getting  a  much  better  catch  of  grass  when  the 
seed  is  sown  without  another  crop.  Killebrew  says  that  in 
former  years  the  farmers  of  Tennessee  almost  universally  sowed 
grass  seeds  in  the  spring  of  the  year  on  crops  of  grain,  but  since 


254  SOWING  SEED,  ETC. 

1810  the  custom  has  been  to  sow  in  early  fall.  Many  sow  grass 
alone  at  this  time  of  year  and  get  a  full  crop  the  next  year. 
Where  grass  is  sown  with  another  crop  they  injure  each  other. 

James  Sanderson,  in  Transactions  of  tlie  Highland  Agricultural 
Society,  1863,  says:  "  If  the  grasses  arc  rank  and  luxuriant,  they 
greatly  retard  the  harvesting  of  grain  and  frequently  deteriorate 
its  value.  This  early  luxuriance  is  often  injurious  to  the  grass 
itself,  as  it  extracts  valuable  ingredients  from  the  soil.  The 
grain  denudes  the  grass  of  valuable  food  and  renders  it  more 
susceptible  of  injury  from  extremes  of  weather.  The  plan  of 
sowing  grass  seeds  without  a  crop  has  recently  been  adopted  on 
several  farms  of  Great  Britain  with  great  success.  Experiments 
have  shown  that  the  profit  from  the  first  year's  pasture  was 
more  than  an  equivalent  for  the  want  of  a  crop  of  grain.  The 
next  year  the  field  is  fit  for  pasture  a  fortnight  earlier  than  it 
would  have  been  if  sown  with  a  crop.  The  grass  gets  a  better 
start  and  makes*for  several  years  a  better  pasture  or  meadow." 

He  mentions  the  fact  that  many  men  who  have  tried  this  plan 
are  of  the  same  opinion.  The  plan  of  seeding  without  another 
crop  has  here  been  made  prominent,  because  many  persons  have 
scarcely  thought  of  any  other  way  than  that  of  seeding  to  grass 
with  a  grain  crop. 

Sowing  Seed  where  Grasses  already  Occupy  the  Land. — 
In  the  Northern  States  where  the  land  was  more  or  less  thickly 
covered  with  a  growth  of  sedges  and  wild  grasses,  in  numerous 
instances  we  have  seen  this  order  of  things  very  materially 
changed  by  the  introduction  of  other  species.  This  was 
accomplished  by  simply  sowing  the  seeds  over  the  surface.  In 
some  cases  a  harrow  passing  over  the  land  exposed  the  soil  in 
small  strips  and  patches.  The  change  of  grasses  in  such  cases  is 
usually  rather  slow  and  unsatisfactory,  but  this  is  not  always  the 
case. 

.At  the  Agricultural  College,  a  good  lawn  on  well  prepared  soil 


SOWING  SEED,    ETC.  365 

had  for  six  or  eight  years  produced  only  the  finer  grasses  and  one 
clover,  consisting  for  a  time  mainly  of  June  grass,  Rhode  Island 
bent  grass,  perennial  rye  grass,  and  white  clover.  It  was  mowed 
often  and  not  allowed  to  produce  flowers  or  seeds.  After  a  few 
years  the  rye  grass  gradually  disappeared,  the  other  plants 
occupying  its  place.  A  year  or  two  later  some  plats  of  grasses 
were  established  just  west  of  this  lawn.  In  a  little  while,  through 
the  help  of  the  wind,  other  seeds  were  sown  and  inroads  were 
made  on  this  close  lawn.  Several  of  the  larger  fescues,  orchard 
grass,  quack  grass,  and  a  few  others  of  less  note  appeared.  These 
are  rather  on  the  increase,  and  with  a  liberal  seeding  I  have  no 
doubt  they  would  soon  be  still  more  prominent.  Doubtless  this 
result  would  not  always  follow,  as  very  much  depends  on  the  soil 
and  climate.  This  suggests  that  by  sowing  seeds  of  better  grasses 
improvements  might  often  be  made  in  our  permanent  grass  lands. 
Concerning  the  advisability  of  attempting  to  introduce  "  tame 
grasses  "  by  sowing  the  seeds  on  prairie  sod,  Prof.  E.  M.  Shelton, 
of  Central  Kansas,  makes  the  following  remarks :  "  But,  what- 
ever may  be  the  character  of  the  soil,  prepare  the  land  as  well 
and  thoroughly,  by  plowing  and  harrowing,  as  for  any  grain  crop. 
This  is  a  rule  with  scarcely  an  exception ;  and  its  violation  in 
various  ways  explains  a  large  proportion  of  the  failures  that  have 
attended  the  cultivation  of  tame  grasses  in  Kansas.  The  ques- 
tion is  asked  us  many  times  every  year :  "Why  may  I  not  scatter 
the  seed  upon  the  sod,  as  is  often  done  in  the  East?  This  is 
often  done,  but  the  practice,  so  far  as  our  observation  has  gone, 
has  resulted  in  almost  uniform  failure.  "Where  the  prairie  sod 
has  been  largely  destroyed  by  the  tramping  of  cattle,  we  have 
known  blue  grass  to  succeed  partially  by  this  method ;  but,  even 
in  this  case,  a  better  sod  would  have  been  obtained  in  less  time 
by  thoroughly  subduing  the  land,  by  two  or  three  years  of  crop- 
ping, before  applying  the  grass  seed.  As  before  stated,  in  the 
eastern  counties  of  the  State,  this  practice  is  successfully  fol- 


256  CARE  OF  GRASS  LANDS. 

lowed;  but  even  here  we  are  satisfied  that  it  would  pay  the 
farmer  much  better,  and  he  would  obtain  a  better  sod  and  nearly 
as  quickly  if  he  should  take  the  '  wildness  *  out  of  the  land  with 
two  or  three  grain  crops  before  seeding." 


CHAPTER     XI. 
CARE  OF  GRASS  LANDS. 

Permanent  Pasture  vs.  Alternate  Husbandry. — Fifty- 
five  correspondents  in  a  recent  report  in  England  agree  that  "It 
is  certainly  unadvisable  to  break  up  any  tolerably  good  pastures 
for  the  purpose  of  converting  them  into  arable  land." 

With  his  experience  and  observation  in  mild  and  moist  Europe, 
Bousingault  believed  that  there  is  no  system  of  rotation,  however 
well  conceived  and  carried  out,  which  will  stand  comparison  in 
point  of  productiveness  with  a  natural  meadow  properly  situated 
and  properly  attended  to. 

In  1881,  nearly  half  the  land  occupied  for  agricultural  purposes 
in  Great  Britain  was  in  permanent  pasture  and  meadow,  and  the 
proportion  is  on  the  increase.  In  Ireland  the  proportion  is  still 
greater  in  favor  of  permanent  grass  land.  The  proportion  is 
greatest  where  the  air  contains  most  moisture. 

The  late  George  Geddes,  in  the  Country  Gentleman  for  1882, 
reports  a  discussion  of  the  Onondaga  Farmers'  Club.  Men  who 
had  moist  lands,  with  water  under  them,  believed  in  permanent 
pasture.  Men  who  cultivated  dry  soils,  well  adapted  to  a  rotation 
of  crops,  easily  plowed,  and  especially  subject  to  severe  droughts, 
were  very  decided  in  the  opinion  that  permanent  pastures  are  of 
little  value  as  compared  with  grain  crops,  and  hay  and  pasture 
in  rotation.  Rocky  land  and  steep  hillsides  are  best  kept  in 
grass.  The  amount  of  rain-fall  has  much  importance  in  deciding 


CARE  OF  GRASS  LANDS.  257 

which  is  the  best  use  of  the  land.  On  dry  lands  subject  to  f  re- 
quent  and  severe  droughts,  the  grass  soon  runs  out.  After 
reseeding,  they  give  a  great  crop  the  first  year,  less  the  next,  and 
gradually  the  clover  and  Timothy  die  out. 

We  are  informed  that  the  best  pastures  in  England  along  the 
banks  of  the  Axe,  the  Brue,  and  the  Parret,  rent  annually  for 
five  to  eight  pounds  sterling  per  acre,  or  about  twenty-five  to 
forty  dollars.  In  one  instance,  £3,000  was  offered  for  10  acres 
of  such  pasture  land  and  refused.  Such  pastures  are  green  in 
the  spring  when  everything  else  is  brown,  and  they  grow  on  into 
late  autumn  when  other  pastures  have  ceased  to  support  stock. 
They  supply  food  for  a  much  longer  period  than  inferior  pastures, 
and  save  a  couple  of  month's  winter  keep. 

In  Holland  an  acre  of  permanent  pasture  is  said  to  carry  one 
cow  and  a  sheep.  In  Herkimer  county,  New  York,  rich  perma- 
nent pastures  carry  one  cow  to  each  acre  and  a  half,  while  in 
much  of  New  England,  Professor  Stockbridge  says,  "  Eight  acres 
are  required  for  one  cow,  and  then  she  comes  home  at  night 
looking  disappointed." 

Secretary  "W.  I.  Chamberlain,  of  Ohio,  in  the  Country  Gentle- 
man, says:  "  Our  pastures  are  not  so  productive  as  we  suppose.  A 
fine  old  pasture  of  three  years  standing,  when  mowad  in  a  good 
season,  yielded  less  than  a  ton  to  the  acre,  and  in  one  season  less 
than  half  a  ton  per  acre.  The  grass  was  short  June  grass,  red- 
top,  red  clover,  white  clover,  and  some  Timothy.  The  land  is 
capable  of  better  things.  Next  to  it  is  a  field,  no  better  land, 
from  which  I  have  twice  within  10  years  taken  over  three  tons 
per  acre  of  cured  hay.  Not  even  tile  draining  and  top  dressing 
will  restore  such  old  pastures  and  meadows.  A  rich  ten-acre 
field  of  good,  newly  seeded  pasture  will  '  carry  '  more  cows  than 
forty  acres  of  old  pasture." 

The  seeding  down  to  good,  permanent  pasture,  even  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions,  is  a  slow  and  costly  process.  As  we 
33 


258  CARE  OF  GRASS  LANDS. 

must  infer,  the  climate  and  situation  have  much  to  do  in  helping 
solve  the  question  whether  to  keep  land  permanently  in  grass,  or 
whether  to  include  the  grass  in  a  rotation  of  crops. 

At  the  present  day,  even  in  England,  some  of  the  most 
advanced  farmers  favor  breaking  up  the  dryer  arable  land,  and 
believe  in  this  way  they  can  obtain  the  largest  yield  of  animal 
food. 

In  favorable  climates,  land  which  will  permanently  support  a 
good  growth  of  grass  must  be  naturally  of  the  very  best  quality, 
in  good  heart,  well  prepared,  and  afterwards  liberally  manured 
for  some  years. 

There  are  a  few  excellent  farms  in  Southern  Michigan,  in  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  Wisconsin,  and  neighboring  States,  which  contain 
permanent  pasture  of  good  quality,  and  which  yield  liberally. 
Generally  the  grass  does  not  continue  uniform.  It  dies  out  or 
becomes  thin  in  some  places,  and  vacancies  are  filled  with  grasses 
of  poorer  quality,  or  with  weeds  of  no  value. 

In  Johnson's  Agricultural  Chemistry  we  read :  "  It  is  pretty 
generally  acknowledged  that  land  laid  down  to  grasses  for  one, 
two,  three,  or  more  years  is  in  some  degree  rested  or  recruited, 
and  that  it  diminishes  in  value  again  after  two,  three,  or  five 
years,  more  or  less,  unless  some  manure  be  given  to  them.  The 
opinion  is  due  largely  to  the  annual  production  of  'roots  (and 
rootstocks)  on  old  grass  land,  which  is  equal  to  one-third  or  one- 
fourth  of  the  weight  of  hay  carried  off." 

The  roots  of  grasses  extend  deeper  than  is  generally  supposed. 
These  with  the  stubble,  old  leaves,  and  turf,  make  a  large 
amount  of  vegetable  matter.  Mr.  Lawes  estimates  that  on  a 
good  pasture  they  will  weigh  from  five  to  ten  tons  per  acre  of  dry 
matter,  containing  accumulated  nitrogen  to  the  extent  of  one 
ton. 

In  rather  dry  climates,  where  the  rootstocks  and  roots  of  an 
old  pasture  have  formed  a  mat  of  vegetable  materials,  the  yield 


THE  ADVANTAGES  OF  A   ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  259 

may  be  much  increased  by  plowing  and  harrowing  the  land  and 
let  the  grass  again  occupy  the  soil.  This  plan  is  especially  well 
adapted  to  renewing  the  yield  of  June  grass,  quack  grass,  Ber- 
muda grass,  and  Johnson  grass. 

In  reference  to  permanent  grass  lands,  J.  Julie,  of  England, 
in  his  "Gold  Medal"  essay,  makes  the  following  remarks  in 
Jour.  Eoy.  Ag.  Soc.  for  1882 :  "  The  cultivation  of  roots  and 
cereals  deprives  the  soil  of  nitrogen,  whilst  that  of  grass  and 
leguminous  plants,  temporary  or  permanent,  on  the  contrary 
causes  it  to  accumulate  in  the  soil.  That  nitrogen  being  the 
most  expensive  to  buy,  it  is  not  economical  to  devote  part  of  the 
land  absolutely  to  arable  and  part  to  grass,  for  whilst  the  one 
uses  up  the  nitrogen,  the  other  accumulates  it  in  excess.  It  is 
preferable  to  alternate  on  the  same  piece  of  land  the  cultivation 
of  roots  and  cereals  with  that  of  grass  lays.  By  this  means 
cultivation  can  be  kept  up  indefinitely  without  purchasing 
nitrogen,  provided  the  land  be  maintained  in  a  fit  state  of  rich- 
ness as  regards  the  mineral  elements.  The  occupation  of  land 
by  a  grass  for  two  or  three  years  which  takes  its  turn  in  the 
rotation  of  crops  is  preferred  to  permanent  occupation  by  grass." 

The  late  J.  J.  Mechi,  of  England,  objects  to  old  pastures  in 
countries  which  are  rather  dry.  The  crop  is  too  light ;  arable 
la"nd  is  more  profitable. 

The  Advantages  of  a  Rotation  of  Crops.— Some  of  them  are 
as  follows:  Manure  is  economized,  as  crops  do  not  all  feed  alike; 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  better  and  more  economically  preserved ; 
weeds  are  more  easily  controlled ;  it  enables  a  person  to  distribute 
his  labor  more  evenly  through  the  year ;  it  gives  a  proportion  of 
grain  for  feed  and  coarse  straw  for  litter ;  crops  in  alternation 
are  less  liable  to  the  attacks  of  fungi  and  insects.  Where  fields 
are  occasionally  cultivated,  moles  are  less  likely  to  become 
troublesome.  Leguminous  plants  are  not  specially  benefited  by 
nitrogenous  manures,  but  they  are  nitrogen  "producers,"  and 


PASTURES  YIELD  MORE  THAN  MEADOWS. 


leave  the  land  in  fine  condition  for  the  grasses  proper,  including 
the  cereals. 

It  would  be  better  for  the  farmer  if  he  looked  more  upon  grass 
as  a  leading  crop  in  his  rotation,  instead  of  one  of  minor 
importance. 

Pasture  Yields  more  Nourishment  than  Meadows. — The 
following  experiment  is  reported  by  C.  L.  F.  DeLaune  in  Jour. 
Boy.  Ag.  Soc.,  1882:  "After  the  grasses  and  clovers  had  grown 
one  year  and  had  become  well  established,  one  plat  was  mowed 
twice,  and  a  similar  plat  was  mowed  six  times  during  the  year. 
The  latter  was  to  imitate  the  frequent  cropping  of  grass  by  cattle. 

Total  Per 
Acre. 
Tons. 

Green,  cut  twice. 17.06 

Dried,    "       "     4.49 

Green,    "    sixtimes. 21.26 

Dried,    "    "       " 3.602 

"  The  following  shows  the  amount  per  acre  of  the  most  valuable 
substances  contained  in  the  hay : 


Nitrogen. 

Phosphoric 
Acid. 

Lime. 

Magnesia. 

Potash. 

Cut  twice  

229.24 

82.05 

208.72 

41.95 

279.18 

Cut  six  times 

236.36 

90.06 

121.30 

37.43 

280.96 

Difference  

+  7.11 

+  8.01 

-87.42 

-4.49 

+  1.78 

"We  see  that,  from  the  second  piece  cut  six  times,  deficiency  in 
weight  is  made  up  for  by  superior  quality.  It  contains  7.12  Ibs. 
of  nitrogen,  8.01  Ibs.  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  1.78  Ibs.  of  potash 
more  than  the  first  crop.  It  is  lower  in  percentage  of  lime  and 
magnesia,  which,  however,  are  but  of  secondary  importance  for 
feeding  purposes.  It  is  certain  then  that  cattle  grazed  on  the 
crop  of  the  piece  cut  six  times  would  have  been  better  nourished 


CARE  OF   PASTURES.  261 

than  those  to  which  the  hay  from  the  first  piece  would  have  been 
given. 

"Land  used  for  pasture  yields  more  nourishment  than  that 
where  the  grass  is  mowed  off.  Young  shoots  are  much  more 
nitrogenous  than  plants  in  flower  and  young  green  plants  are 
more  digestible  than  dried  ones.  In  pastures  the  droppings  of 
animals  enrich  the  soil. 

'  "  Aftermaths  are  richer  in  nitrogen  than  first  cuts,  and  they 
are  more  nitrogenous  the  younger  they  are  gathered ;  they  are 
richer,  also,  in  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Theoretically,  after- 
maths constitute  a  better  food  than  first  cuts,  yet  they  sell  at  a 
lower  price,  probably  owing  to  their  appearance,  and  because 
when  dried  they  are  more  indigestible." 

In  considering  the  above  experiment  in  reference  to  the  great 
value  of  grass  cropped  often,  we  should  not  forget  to  take  into 
account  that  cattle  and  sheep,  while  they  roam  over  and  over 
the  field  for  pasture,  injure  the  grass  more  or  less  with  their  feet. 

Care  of  Pastures.— In  this  country,  as  a  rule,  they  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  receive  any  care.  No  crop  gets  less  attention, 
none  would  respond  more  quickly  to  good  care.  Much  attention 
has  been  given  to  premium  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  potatoes,  the 
improvement  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine ;  poultry  are  encour- 
aged by  liberal  premiums,  but  we  seldom  hear  of  a  premium  crop 
of  grass.  It  seems  practicable  to  double  the  present  yield  with- 
out an  outlay  at  all  corresponding  to  the  increased  value  of  the 
crop.  Is  there  any  good  reason  why  a  farmer  should  not  bestow 
as  much  care  in  selecting  the  proper  seeds  and  in  the  after  treat- 
ment of  meadows  as  he  would  in  selecting  or  breeding  and  raising 
a  short-horn  bull  calf  or  a  merino  lamb? 

Grass  should  not  be  pastured  in  very  early  spring  before  the 
ground  settles  and  the  sod  becomes  firm.  By  this  early  pastur- 
ing the  tops  are  kept  closely  cut  off,  the  roots  are  much  injured, 
from  which  the  grass  does  not  recover  for  the  whole  year.  To 


262  CARE  OF  PASTURES. 

gain  and  thrive,  a  grass  needs  some  green  leaves  as  much  as  a 
horse  needs  fresh  air  and  a  stomach  to  digest  a  liberal  allowance 
of  food. 

Experiments  show  the  following  from  the  Country  Gentleman 
to  be  true:  "If  cut  very  frequently  and  kept  short,,  like  the 
grasses  of  a  lawn,  the  roots  will  not  make  the  same  size  and 
extent  of  growth  as  when  the  stalks  and  leaves  have  free  develop- 
ment. The  roots  depend  as  much  on  the  leaves  as  the  leaves  and 
stems  do  on  the  roots." 

Pastures  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow  very  long  in  the  spring 
without  feeding,  as  the  culms  run  up  and  blossom  and  m?ke  ti 
growth  distasteful  to  all  kinds  of  stock.  By  movable  fences,  or 
otherwise,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  feed  off  a  piece  rather  closely,  let 
it  get  a  start,  then  feed  off  again  evenly. 

In  large  pastures,  animals  are  likely  to  pick  some  places  closely 
and  leave  others  to  run  to  seed.  A  mixture  of  animals,  or  one 
kind  of  animal  following  another,  will  keep  pastures  more  evenly 
fed  than  will  one  kind  alone.  To  prevent  -patches  from  going  to 
seed,  mow  them  a  small  quantity  at  a  time,  and  when  the  grass 
is  wilted  it  will  generally  be  eaten  by  the  stock.  In  such  places 
a  fresh  bite  very  agreeable  to  cattle  and  sheep  will  often  start  up. 

Pastures  and  meadows  are  very  frequently  eaten  close  to  the 
ground  late  in  autumn,  especially  if  the  season  be  a  dry  one. 
This  is  a  severe  drain  on  the  vitality  of  the  plants  and  causes 
them  to  be  a  long  time  starting  in  the  following  spring.  Joseph 
Harris  cays:  "  On  an  old  Timothy  meadoAV  closely  pastured  last 
fall,  this  year  the  hay  was  not  over  half  a  ton  to  the  acre.  On 
another  meadow  not  so  pastured,  the  grass  was  as  thick  and 
heavy  as  it  could  grow." 

Some  fall  growth  is  necessary  to  give  the  plant  strength  for  a 
good  start  in  the  spring. 

With  reference  to  the  pastures  of  Maine,  Professor  Stockbridge 
said,  on  page  70  of  the  Agricultural  Report  for  1876 :  "  What  is 


CARE  OF  PASTURES.  263 

to  "be  done?  In  my  humble  opinion  the  corner-stone  in  regard 
to  the  improvement  of  pasture  land  must  be  put  in  the  head  of 
the  farmer  himself.  To  improve  the  pasture  land  of  Maine,  you 
must  first  seek  to  reform  the  farmer.  The  lands  were  once 
fertile,  they  are  now  sterile.  Fires  burned  it,  floods  washed  it. 
The  milk  and  flesh  of  cattle  have  caused  an  immense  drain  upon 
the  land.  We  must  use  fertilizers.  A  mixture  of  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  180  Ibs. ;  muriate  of  potash,  70  Ibs. ;  a  good,  nice 
superphosphate,  100  Ibs.  Mix  and  put  on  to  two  acres  of  land. 

"In  improving  my  pasture,  I  would  like  to  select  my  stock. 
There  must  be  some  stock  and  there  must  he  somebody  to  raise 
it.  I  would  like  to  let  somebody  else  manufacture  the  animal 
carcass  and  let  me  have  it  to  fatten.  Then  the  animal  will  only 
take  away  from  my  farm  carbon,  which  I  can  afford  to  have  him 
do.  So  I  will  reach  out  to  New  York  or  to  the  West  and  buy 
cattle  from  somebody  whom  I  do  not  know  and  whose  farm  I 
shall  never  see." 

A  chief  reason  for  the  light  yield  of  grass,  or  a  failure  to  get  a 
good  "  catch,"  in  many  portions  of  our  country  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  strength  of  the  new  land  was  required  to  produce  suc- 
cessive crops  of  wheat,  Indian  corn,  cotton,  and  other  hoed  crops 
on  arable  land. 

Where  thin  or  unproductive,  harrow  the  surface  and  sow  on 
other  kinds  of  grasses  and  clovers,  with  a  top  dressing  of  some 
fertilizer.  This  serves,  to  some  extent,  as  a  rotation  of  crops  for 
the  soil.  If  the  cattle  are  fed  oil  meal  or  some  other  rich  food, 
most  of  it  goes  to  fertilize  the  land.  Bare  knolls  will  be 
improved  by  a  very  thin  mulch  of  straw  put  on  early  in  winter 
after  the  ground  is  frozen.  A  light,  fine-tooth  harrow  will  work 
the  manure  out  of  sight  and  out  of  the  way.  It  helps  to  cover 
the  small  seeds. 

Scatter  the  droppings  of  cattle,  that  no  offensive  bunches  of 
tall  grass  may  grow  around  them.  It  is  a  good  practice  at  the 


264  CARE  OF  PASTURES. 

North  to  allow  a  part  of  the  pasture  to  grow  large  for  late  fall 
feeding. 

For  feeding  late  in  autumn  and  early  spring,  at  the  North,  rye 
is  excellent  to  piece  out  or  save  the  common  pasture. 

The  following  on  the  care  of-  pastures  in  Iowa  appeared  in  the 
New  York  Tribune,  and  was  written  by  Professor  S.  A.  Knapp : 

"Many  farmers  do  not  yet  understand  how  to  manage  the 
pasture  to  the  best  advantage.  They  are  so  anxious  to  receive 
the  full  benefit  or  every  crop  of  grass  that  they  are  alarmed  if 
the  grass  gets  the  start  of  the  cattle  in  June,  lest  some  of  it  fail 
to  be  manufactured  into  beef  or  milk. 

"  A  little  more  grass  on  the  pasture  than  the  cattle  can  eat  in 
June  should  not  be  a  source  of  anxiety  any  more  than  an  extra 
crock  of  fine  June  butter  in  the  refrigerator.  In  the  West 
extremes  of  moisture  and  drought  are  the  rule,  and  a  dry  period 
is  quite  likely  to  occur  in  July  and  August.  During  periods  of 
drought  there  is  scarcely  any  growth  of  grass,  at  least  entirely 
insufficient  for  the  stock.  Close  grazing  in  June  leaves  the  stock 
with  insufficient  food  in  case  of  drought,  and  works  serious  injury 
to  the  grasses. 

"Last  season  furnishes  a  very  good  illustration.  The  latter 
part  of  June  there  was  upon  an  average  on  the  College  farm 
pastures  enough  grass  to  make  one  ton  of  hay  per  acre ;  by  the 
1st  of  September,  with  no  increase  of  stock,  they  were  practically 
bare.  Daily  measurements  of  the  grass  indicated  only  a  trifling 
growth  during  July  and  August.  The  drought  began  in  June, 
and  there  was  not  sufficient  rain  for  pastures  till  September, 
and  the  growth  in  September  was  not  equal  to  the  demands  of 
the  herds,  as  the  grass  appeared  to  start  very  slowly.  Practically 
the  closest  grazing  was  in  September. 

"  The  effect  of  full  and  close  pasturing  upon  stock  was  tested 
as  follows:  Four  yearling  Shorthorn  heifers  were  kept  in  a 
pasture  with  other  stock  and  weighed  the  first  day  of  each  month. 


CARE   OF  PASTURES.  265 

They  remained  in  the  same  pasture  till  October  1,  when  they 
were  turned  into  a  meadow.  The  following  gains  (in  pounds) 
were  made  for  the  season:  May,  332;  June,  260;  July,  160; 
August,  172;  September,  78;  October,  230;  November,  122; 
total  gain,  1,354  pounds.  Each  animal  gained — taking  the 
average — 338^  pounds  from  May  1  till  December  1.  From 
August  15  till  October  1  they  received  a  daily  ration  of  wheat 
bran  and  oats — four  quarts  per  head. 

"Three  of  these  heifers  were  summer  calves  of  the  year  pre- 
vious, making  them  short  yearlings.  The  majority  of  our 
common  cultivated  grasses  grow  most  rapidly  when  the  soil  is 
quite  moist  and  the  temperature  is  between  70°  and  80°.  Our 
black,  prairie  soil,  when  exposed,  frequently  reaches  a  temperature 
of  115°  at  the  surface.  Under  such  conditions  evaporation  goes 
on  with  great  rapidity  and  the  soil  becomes  dry  to  a  considerable 
depth.  Ten  inches  of  dense  grass  afford  sufficient  protection  to 
the  surface  of  the  soil  to  keep  the  temperature  about  that  of  the 
atmosphere  in  the  daytime  and  considerably  warmer  than  the 
atmosphere  at  night,  t^us  preventing  such  sudden  and  wide 
extremes  of  temperature  that  the  plants  fail  to  adjust  themselves. 
While  it  does  not  destroy  them,  it  retards  or  prevents  growth. 

"  Close  grazing  may  do  in  a  cool,  moist  climate  with  some 
stock,  but  upon  our  western  prairies  it  is  a  mistake.  Where 
there  is  an  abundance  of  grass  the  cattle  take  regular  meals,  and 
lie  down  to  digest ;  upon  short  range  they  are  constantly  traveling 
and  picking,  which  does  not  afford  the  best  conditions  for  vigor, 
growth,  or  the  production  of  beef  or  milk.  In  the  fall  a  good 
coat  of  grass  protects  the  roots  from  frost,  and  growth  continues 
till  quite  late  in  the  season,  even  after  the  open  ground  is  frozen 
two  inches  or  more.  This  is  the  secret  of  our  so-called  winter 
grazing." 

Concerning  the  management  of  grass  lands,  Baron  J.  B.  Lawes 
finds  it  very  important  not  to  feed  young  grass  the  first  year. 
34 


266  CARE  OF  MEADOWS. 

He  opposes  mowing  it  the  second  year,  having  found  that  this 
practice  destroys  the  clovers  and  the  lesser  grasses  by  encourag- 
ing the  stronger  growing  species.  He  avoids  mowing  for  sev- 
eral years,  feeding  with  cattle  in  preference  to  sheep.  He  sows 
a  variety  of  grasses,  leaving  the  best  to  hold  their  own. 

"A  pasture  cannot  do  much  above  ground  till  after  the  form- 
ation of  a  large  bulk  of  roots  below.  The  working  capital  of 
nitrogen  and  potash  in  a  pasture  must  be  larger  than  that  re- 
quired in  an  arable  soil.  In  a  pasture  there  is  less  activity  and 
less  change  than  there  is  in  an  arable  soil.  New  turf  will  not 
become  permanently  productive  until  after  the  underground 
formation  of  stored  up  material.  A  pasture  often  falls  off  after 
the  first  three  or  four  years.  This  can  be  avoided  by  a  liberal 
feeding  on  the  ground  of  cattle  eating  cotton  cake.  For  the 
formation  of  a  good  turf  after  everything  else  is  right,  nothing 
equals  cotton  cake,  cotton  cake,  cotton  cake!  If  he  sells  the  hay, 
and  thereby  takes  potash  from  his  soil,  he  can  restore  the  waste 
with  kainit  salts  or  sulphate  of  potash." 

Care  of  Meadows. — Much  that  was  said  in  reference  to  the 
care  of  pastures  applies  equally  to  the  care  of  meadows.  They 
are  injured  by  being  shaved  too  closely,  by  continued  removal 
of  hay  without  any  returns  in  the  form  of  fertilizers,  by  close 
feeding  of  cattle  in  addition  to  mowing. 

If  land  is  in  excellent  condition  when  seeded  to  grass  little 
need  be  done  for  the  first  two  years,  when  the  sod  may  be  broken 
for  some  other  crop,  or  for  re-seeding  to  grass.  If  clover  is  used 
a  dressing  of  plaster  should  not  be  neglected. 

In  a  summary  of  the  opinions  of  55  prominent  farmers  of 
England,  most  of  them  advocate  mowing  in  the  first  season  in- 
stead of  pasturing.  The  majority  prefer  mowing  early  the  first 
year  and  again  later  in  the  season.  All  admit  the  great  value  of 
a  dressing  of  farmyard  manure,  several  recommend  feeding  cattle 


WHAT  MANURES  TO  APPLY.  367 

and  sheep  with  cotton  cake  on  grass  land.  By  no  means  allow 
sheep  to  pasture  newly  seeded  grass  land. 

What  Manures  to  Apply. — This  is  a  very  puzzling  question 
— one  difficult  to  answer.  In  most  cases  no  one  can  tell  what 
would  be  best  till  experiments  are  made,  but  an  intelligent  per- 
son of  experience  can  usually  tell  approximately  what  is  for  the 
best. 

The  substances  most  generally  needed  in  manures  for  increas- 
ing a  crop  are  those  containing  available  nitrogen,  potash  and 
phosphoric  acid.  The  influence  of  the  weather,  the  moisture  on 
grasses  and  clovers  is  much  more  marked  than  that  caused  by 
the  richness  or  barrenness  of  the  soil. 

"The  tendency  of  modern  practice  in  manuring  is  to  use 
readily  soluble  and  quick  acting  manures,  but  to  use  them 
sparingly  at  each  time.  Little  and  often  is  the  rule.  It  is  not 
good  policy  to  bury  any  manure  very  deeply,  but  apply  it  on  or 
near  the  surface." — [Crops  of  the  Farm.] 

It  is  better  to  apply  nitrogenous  manures  in  spring  when 
plants  are  beginning  to  grow.  In  what  follows  the  reader  will 
learn  from  the  experience  of  others  who  have  made  many  ex- 
periments with  various  kinds  of  fertilizers  applied  to  grass 
land.  For  these  we  are  compelled  to  cross  the  Atlantic,  as  but 
few  reliable  results  have  been  published  in  America. 

The  following  is  gathered  from  J.  Julie  in  Jour.  Koy.  Ag.  Soc. : 
"  If  the  leguminous  plants  are  well  developed  and  prominent  we 
should  diminish  the  dose  of  potash  and  increase  the  nitrogen. 
If,  on  the  contrary,  the  true  grasses  stifle  the  Leguminosae,  it  is 
better  to  reduce  the  dose  of  nitrogen  and  increase  that  of  potash. 
Farmyard  manure  contains  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen,  but  very 
little  in  a  soluble  state,  unless  it  is  well  decomposed.  There  is 
a.  marked  advantage  in  using  a  chemical  manure,  as  farmyard 
manure  contains  an  excess  of  several  elements  which  will  of  ne- 
cessity remain  unemployed.  Farmyard  manure  is  far  more  suit- 


WHAT  MANURES  TO  APPLY. 


able  for  the  cultivation  of  arable  than  grass  lands,  for  the  plow 
mixes  it  with  the  mass  of  the  soil.  It  pays  better,  especially  on 
sloping  lands,  to  apply  a  little  manure  frequently  than  much 
manure  at  greater  intervals."  Some  grasses  draw  much  more 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid  than  others.  Here  are  two  mixtures 
in  which  the  requirments  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  greatly 
differ.  The  tables  are  from  Mr.  Julie : 

FIKST    MIXTURE. 
PHOSPHORIC  ACID.  POTASH. 

In  1,000  Ibs.  In  1,000  Ibs. 

Lolium  perenne 6.75  36.3 

Phalaris  bleuatre 5.68 31.4 

Avena  flavescens 5.98  26.55 

Anthoxanthum  odoratum 6.85 25.89 

Festucapratensis- 5.52  21.83 

Bromus  Sehraderii 8.07 21.55 

Mean  or  average 6.375     27.256 

SECOND  MIXTURE. 

Poa  nemoralis 4.12     10.85 

Bromus  pratensis 3.62     13.59 

Poa  pratensis. 4.43 15.24 

Cynosurus  cristatus 3.72     15.24 

Festuca  rubra 3.34     16.37 

Phleum  pratense 4.13     _ 16.61 

Mean  or  average 3.893  14.65 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  average  of  the  second  mixture  is  only 
about  half  as  exhaustive  to  the  soil  as  the  first  in  producing  the 
same  amount  of  hay. 

In  1858  Baron  Lawes  said:  "The  best  artificial  manures  for 
grass  land  are  Peruvian  guano,  and  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphate 
of  ammonia."  In  1875  he  wrote:  "  I  am  disposed  to  think  a 
dressing  of  dung  once  in  five  years  and  2  cwt.  of  nitrate  of  soda 
the  other  four  is  about  as  good  an  application  as  can  be  used. 
Peruvian  guano,  when  alone,  may  be  used  at  the  rate  of  150  or 


WHAT  MANURES  TO  APPLY.  269 

200  pounds  per  acre.  A  very  useful  top  dressing  for  the  hay 
crop  may  be  made  of  three  parts  of  Peruvian  guano,  one  part 
nitrate  of  soda,  and  one  part  of  ammonia,  using  annually  200  to 
250  Ibs.  per  acre.  With  this  apply  10  to  12  tons  per  acre  of 
rotton  dung  once  in  four  or  five  years."  This  is  for  permanent 
grass  land. 

On  this  important  point,  let  us  read  another  excellent  author- 
ity, Dr.  A.  Voelcker,  in  Jour.  Roy.  Ag.  Soc.,  p.  459,  1866: 
"  Where  good  farmyard  manure  can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable 
price,  I  have  no  hesitatior  in  saying  I  believe  it  will  be  found 
the  most  efficacious  and  economical  manure,  both  for  seeds  (of 
clover)  and  permanent  pasture.  Sometimes  common  salt  has 
had  no  effect.  In  one  experiment  the  heaviest  crop  of  clover 
was  produced  by  a  mixture  of  superphosphate  of  lime  and  muriate 
of  potash." 

In  1874  of  the  same  Journal,  he  says:  "On  some  soils,  more 
especially  on  poor,  light  pastures,  the  effect  of  bone-dust  on  the 
herbage  is  truly  marvelous ;  whilst  in  other  localities  bones  do 
not  show  any  marked  effect  upon  meadow  land.  I  would  advise 
making  field  trials  on  a  limited  scale,  before  heavy  expense  is 
incurred  in  manuring  pastures.  Bone  meal  is  often  wasted  on 
cold  clay  soils.  Sinclair's  remarks  may  be  made  with  regard  to 
the  application  of  lime  to  grass  land.  Some  soils  are  deficient  in 
lime  and  will  be  much  improved  by  its  use.  Pasture  soils  vary 
much  in  composition  and  physical  character,  and  hence  the  same 
manures  which  effect  a  radical  improvement  on  pastures  in  one 
locality  are  often  found  to  be  of  little  use  in  another  place.  For 
this  reason  it  is  difficult  and  hazardous  to  prescribe  manuring 
compounds  for  grass  land.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  stated 
that  manures  rich  in  nitrogen  and  readily  available  phosphoric 
acid  produce  the  greatest  and  most  beneficial  effect  on  grass  land. 

"  There  is  no  pasture  the  productiveness  of  which  may  not  be 
largely  increased  by  a  heavy  dressing  of  farmyard  manure  or  by 


270  WHAT  MANURES  TO  APPLY. 

a  top  dressing  of  guano,  or  by  artificial  manuring  mixtures  com- 
posed of  ammonia  salts  or  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphate  of  lime. 
Unfortunately  the  application  of  artificial  manures  to  permanent 
pasture  is  often  disappointing  in  an  economical  point  of  view. 
As  a  rule,  no  artificial  manuring  gives  so  favorable  a  return  as 
good  farmyard  manure,  and  I  cannot  help  thinking  that  it 
would  be  more  profitable  for  a  farmer  to  apply  the  larger  portion 
of  his  yard  manure  rather  to  his  pasture  land  than  to  the  arable 
land ;  for  there  is  no  difficulty  in  growing  roots  and  cereal  crops 
economically  with  artificial  manures." 

A  few  of  our  best  Northern  farmers,  such  as  A.  C.  Glidden,  of 
Michigan,  think  that  a  much  greater  benefit  would  be  derived 
from  manures  by  spreading  them  on  the  pastures  or  meadows 
that  were  intended  for  corn  a  year  hence. 

A  sod  is  the  great  basis  for  a  corn  crop,  and  the  better  the  sod 
the  better  the  crop  of  corn. 

In  many  portions  of  the  Northern  States  it  is  the  custom  to 
use  most  of  the  manure  for  the  corn  crop,  with  occasionally  a  top 
dressing  for  wheat. 

Joseph  Harris,  of  Eochester,  New  York,  says :  ' e  The  cheap- 
est and  best  manure  to  apply  to  a  permanent  pasture  is  rich, 
well-decomposed  farmyard  or  stable  manure,  and  if  it  is  not  rich 
apply  200  Ibs.  of  nitrate  of  soda  per  acre  in  addition." 

We  will  read  from  still  another,  J.  Dixon,  in  Jour.  Roy.  Ag. 
Soc.,  p.  204,  1858:  "I  have  no  hesitation,  after  an  extensive 
experience,  in  pronouncing  bones  pre-eminent  above  all  other 
manures  for  the  improvement  of  grass  lands,  when  permanency 
as  well  as  cost  are  considered.  I  prefer  them  raw  and  ground 
fine.  On  a  high  varied  soil  in  England,  within  two  years,  the 
value  of  the  land  was  raised  more  than  from  30  s.  to  3  1.  per 
acre." 

Here  are  notes  from  a  prize  essay  by  C.   Cadle  in  Jour.   Roy. 


WHAT  MANURES  TO  APPLY. 


271 


Ag.  Soc.,  p.  335,1869:  "After  much  experience,  I  think  ma- 
nuring grass  lands  is  one  of  the  worst  subjects  to  treat.  I  have 
seen  bones  applied  and  produce  no  good  whatever;  and  on  the 
other  hand,  I  have  seen  them  used  with  immense  advantage.  I 
have  seen  guano  produce  a  splendid  crop,  while  the  year  follow-' 
ing  the  crop  has  been  worse  than  before  guano  was  applied.  It 
is  impossible  to  give  any  definite  rules  without  knowing  the 
kind  of  land  to  be  manured,  and  other  attendant  circumstances. 
Still  money  judiciously  laid  out  in  the  improvement  of  grass 
land  brings  in  a  more  certain  return  than  where  expended  in  the 
growth  of  wheat." 

In  1864  Dr.  R.  C.  Kedzie,  of  Michigan  Agricultural  College, 
made  some  experiments  in  top  dressing  the  first  year  after  seed- 
ing to  Timothy  and  clover  with  oats.  The  dressing  was  applied 
from  the  5th  to  the  10th  of  May  on  a  soil  of  sandy  loam  of  mod- 
erate fertility. 

RESULT  OF  FIRST  MOWING,  JUNE  21sT : 


Yield 
per  acre. 

Gain 
per  acre. 

Gain 
per  cent. 

Top  Dressing  Applied. 

No.  1 

2,856 

None. 

No.  2 

3,917 

1,061 

37 

Plaster,  2  bushels  per  acre. 

No.  3 

4,515 

1,659 

57 

Wood  ashes,  5  bushels  per  acre. 

No.  4 
No.  5 
No.  6 

4,566 
4,696 
3,813 

1,710 
1,840 
957 

59 
64 
33 

Pulverized  muck,  20  loads  per 
acre. 
Pulverized  muck,  20  loads  per 
acre  and  3  bushels  salt. 
Common  salt,  3  bush,  per  acre. 

No.  7 

3,708 

842 

29 

Horse  manure,  20  loads  pr.  acre. 

No.  8 

3,931 

1,075 

371 

Cow  manure,  20  loads  per  acre. 

272 


WHAT  MANURES  TO  APPLY. 
RESULT  OF  SECOND  MOWING  ON  AUGUST  HTH  : 


Yield 
per  acre. 

Gain 
per  acre. 

Gain 
per  cent. 

Top  Dressing  Applied. 

No.  1 

1,742 

None. 

No.  2 

3,056 

1,314 

75 

Plaster. 

No.  3 

2,977 

1,235 

71 

Wood  ashes. 

No.  4 

3,306 

1,564 

89 

Pulverized  muck. 

No.  5 

2.975 

1,233 

71 

Pulverized  muck  and  salt. 

No.  6 

2,467 

725 

41% 

Common  salt. 

No.  7 

2,678 

936 

54 

Horse  manure. 

No.  8 

2,856 

1,114 

64 

Cow  manure. 

A  little  gypsum  or  plaster  or  clover,  only  a  half  bushel  to  the 
acre,  will  often  increase  the  yield  in  an  astonishing  manner, 
making  the  gypsum  worth  $125  per  ton.  In  some  cases  it  will 
do  scarcely  if  any  good.  This  is  the  case  usually  on  wet  land  or 
in  very  wet  seasons. 

Baron  Lawes  states  the  following  in  the  Indiana  Farmer  for 
1883,  in  reference  to  fertilizing  pastures  in  the  United  States: 

"Where  pasture  is  constantly  mown,  the  removal  of  the  potash 
from  the  soil  becomes  in  time  very  large.  Taking  into  account 
the  price  obtained  for  hay  in  the  states,  I  think  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  restoration  of  fertility  by  means  of  artificial  manures, 
might  not  be  too  costly,  and  I  should  be  disposed  to  think  that  a 
more  economical  process  for  such  restoration,  would  be  by  feeding 
animals  on  the  pasture  with  corn  or  cake. 

"  The  quality  of  the  pastures  at  Rothamsted  has  been  wonder- 
fully improved  by  giving  a  certain  amount  of  cotton  cake  to  the 
stock  fed  upon  them ;  and  it  is  my  opinion,  that  if  at  any  time 
the  blue-grass  should  retire  from  a  pasture  before  an  invading 
army  of  weeds  and  inferior  grasses,  the  manure  from  cotton 


THE  BATTLE  IN  THE   MEADOW.  278 

will  furnish  the  proper  weapon  to  rout  these  adversaries." 

"The  Battle  in  the  Meadow." — As  wolves  quarrel  over  a 
dead  animal,  or  hungry  swine  over  an  ear  of  corn,  so  plants 
struggle  with  each  other  to  secure  the  greatest  amount  of  food. 
"Whether  they  be  diatoms  in  the  pool,  fungi  on  the  rotting  apple, 
weeds  by  the  wayside,  or  grasses  in  the  meadow,  one  rule  governs 
them  all.  Each  strives  for  all  it  can  get.  Dean  Herbert  was 
more  than  half  right:  "Plants  do  not  grow  where  they  like 
best,  but  where  other  plants  will  let  tTiem." 

On  this  subject,  and  in  this  connection,  we  are  fortunate  in 
having  access  to  •  the  results  of  the  prolonged  and  elaborate 
experiments  of  Baron  J.  B.  Lawes  and  his  associates  at  Rotham- 
eted,  St.  Albans,  England.* 

For  more  than  twenty  years  in  succession  he  experimented  on 
the  agricultural,  botanical,  and  chemical  results  of  a  mixed 
herbage  in  a  permanent  meadow.  There  were  22  plots,  upon 
some  of  which  were  placed  different  kinds  of  fertilizers  and  upon 
others  none  were  used. 

It  was  a  very  old  pasture,  having  been  in  permanent  grass  over 
a  century.  No  fresh  seed  of  any  kind  was  sown  during  the  period. 
The  land  was  flat,  heavy  loam,  with  a  red  clay  subsoil  resting  on 
chalk,  naturally  well  drained.  The  first  crop,  for  a  few  years, 
was  mown;  the  second  was  eaten  off  by  sheep.  There  were 
twelve  different  manures  employed.  The  total  number  of  species 
observed  upon  these  plots  was  89,  belonging  to  22  orders,  ef 
which  20  were  grasses  and  10  leguminous. 

On  the  unmanured  plot,  there  were  slight  changes  from  year 
to  year,  due  mainly  to  difference  in  the  seasons  and  a  slight 
exhaustion  of  the  soil.  By  weight,  the  grasses  furnished  69  per 
cent,  the  leguminous  plants  8,  and  the  other  23  per  cent  was  of 
a  miscellaneous  character.  As  Masters,  the  botanist  who  was 

*See  Jour.  Roy.  Ag.  Soc.,  1858-9;  Philosoph.  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.,  1882. 
35 


274  THE  BATTLE  IN  THE  MEADOW. 

employed,  describes  it :  "  The  general  appearance  of  the 
unmanured  plots  is  one  of  even  growth,  with  no  special  luxuri- 
ance of  any  particular  plant.  The  herbage  is  very  mixed,  the 
crop  scanty,  the  color  yellowish  green,  no  one  kind  being  specially 
favored.  Festuca  ovina  is  the  predominating  grass ;  Briza  media 
is  more  abundant  than  on  most  other  plots.  The  miscellaneous 
plants  are  generally  very  abundant,  such  as  the  buttercups, 
Plantago  lanceolata,  Leontodon,  Brunella  vulgaris,  Achillea 
Millefolium,  Rumex  Acetosa,  and  others.  The  contrast  in  early 
summer  between  the  scanty  yellowish-green  herbage,  profusion 
of  flowers  of  the  various  weeds,  and  the  almost  total  absence  of 
flowers  and  rich,  deep  blue-green  foliage  of  the  plants  in  the 
ammonia  plot  is  very  striking. '' 

As  would  be  expected,  almost  all  the  plants  on  the  experi- 
mental plots,  no  matter  how  they  were  treated,  were  perennials ; 
very  few  were  annuals.  Few  of  them  were  left  long  enough  to 
produce  seeds.  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  what  would 
have  been  the  result  had  all  the  plants  remained  without  cutting. 

The  competition  of  grass  for  room  is  mainly  exerted  by  the 
roots  and  rhizomes,  which  form  a  network  more  or  less  dense 
and  varying  in  depth  according  to  the  plant  and  the  soil.  In 
some  cases  the  competition  is  chiefly  above  ground,  where  dense 
tufts  prevent  the  growth  of  neighboring  species. 

The  changes  of  the  seasons  cause  the  proportion  of  plants  to 
fluctuate. 

As  Darwin  observes,  in  chapter  3,  Origin  of  Species:  "The 
struggle  almost  invariably  will  be  most  severe  between  the  indi- 
viduals of  the  same  species,  for  they  frequent  the  same  districts, 
require  the  same  food,  and  are  exposed  to  the  same  dangers." 

Very  marked  contrasts  between  species  of  the  same  genus  also 
occur,  as  Poa  trivialis  and  Poa  pratensis.  This,  perhaps,  may 
be  partially  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  former  produces  no 
rhizomes  while  the  latter  produces  many. 


THE  EFFECT  OF  MANURES.  275 

Because  a  plant  diminishes  in  proportion  to  others  after  being 
treated  with  a  certain  fertilizer,  it  does  not  follow  that  this  plant 
would  not  also  be  improved  if  it  grew  alone.  One  species  of 
plant  often  receives  more  benefit  from  a  certain  manure  than 
another. 

The  Effect  of  Manures. — It  was  observed  that  those  manures 
which  are  the  most  effective  with  wheat,  barley,  or  oats  on  arable 
land  were  also  the  most  effective  in  bringing  forward  the  meadow 
grasses.  Again,  those  manures  which  were  the  most  beneficial 
to  beans  or  clover  benefited  most  other  species  of  leguminous 
plants. 

The  GraminecB  and  Leguminosce  manifest  somewhat  different 
manurial  requirements.  There  is  perhaps  no  crop  more  in- 
fluenced than  the  grasses  in  its  character,  as  well  as  its  quantity, 
by  the  attention  bestowed  upon  it.  This  applies  also  to  the 
leguminous  plants. 

The  changes  were  most  marked  where  the  most  liberal  ma- 
nuring was  employed;  the  increase  was  much  greater  in  the 
second  year  than  in  the  third  as  compared  with  the  second.  By 
means  of  manures  the  yield  of  dry  matter,  per  acre,  in  the  hay 
crop,  was  in  several  of  the  experiments  considerably  more  than 
doubled.  Every  description  of  manure  diminished  the  number 
of  species  and  the  frequency  of  weeds. 

Dead  leaves  occurred  in  most  places  where  the  manuring  was 
the  lightest  and  the  crops  were  the  heaviest.  This  is  a  disad- 
vantage in  manuring  so  highly  as  to  cause  the  crop  to  fall  and 
die  at  the  bottom  before  the  bulk  is  fit  for  cutting. 

In  the  words  of  the  Agricultural  Gazette  for  July,  1880 :  "  They 
live  in  harmony  on  the  unmanured,  open  park,  having  nothing 
to  fight  for  in  a  state  of  nature.  Season  after  season  the  same 
plants  appear  in  about  the  same  proportions.  But  toss  them  a 
bone,  ground  fine,  or  any  other  choice  bit,  and  their  harmonious 
companionship  terminates  at  once.  Every  act  of  improved  cul- 


276  THE  EFFECT  OF  MANURES. 

tivation  occasions  instant  war.     A  grass  likes  the  best  that  can 
be  got.     It  will  swallow  soda,  but  not  when  it  can  get  potash. 

"On  general  principles,  all  manures  tend  to  drive  out  the 
weeds  by  increasing  the  better  herbage." 

This  is  certainly  very  satisfactory,  but  not  true  in  every  par- 
ticular. 

Mineral  Manures  Alone. — The  leguminous  plants  were  largely 
increased  at  the  expense  of  the  grasses  and  weeds.  The  grasses 
proper  scarcely  increased  at  all,  whilst  the  whole  plat  was  thickly 
covered  with  perennial  red  clover  and  some  other  leguminous, 
plants. 

Very  different  was  the  action  of  ammoniacal  salts  which  caused 
the  exclusive  increase  of  the  grasses  proper,  there  being  scarcely 
a  leguminous  plant  to  be  found  upon  the  plot. 

Siqierphosphate  of  lime,  when  used  alone,  slightly  increased 
the  grasses  and  miscellaneous  plants,  diminishing  the  legumin- 
ous. It  proved  to  be  of  little  or  no  use. 

Ammonia  salts  alone  but  slighty  increased  the  crop.  The  crop 
was  moderate  and  but  little  better  than  the  plot  unmanured. 

Farmyard  manure  gave  a  considerable  increase  of  chiefly  gram- 
inaceous hay  and  some  few  weeds,  such  as  Rumex  and  Achillea, 
Ranunculus,  Carum,  attributed  chiefly  to  its  mineral  and  nitro- 
genous constituents. 

The  general  result  is,  that  leguminous  plants  in  the  meadow 
were  much  increased  in  growth  and  assimilated  more  nitrogen 
from  unaided  sources  over  a  given  area,  when  they  were  liberally 
supplied  with  certain  mixed  or  primarily  soil  constituents. 

Farmyard  manure  greatly  encouraged  the  growth  of  the  good 
grass  Poa  trivialis  and  the  bad  one  Bromus  mollis,  and  when  in 
conjunction  with  ammonia  salts  the  Dactylis  glomerata,  under 
both  conditions,  Festuca  duriuscula  and  F.  pratensis  were  nearly 
excluded,  and  Avenaflavescens,  A.  pubescens,  Agrostis  vulgaris, 


THE  EFFECT  OF  MANURES.  277 

Lolium  perenne  and  Arrlienatherum  avenaceum  were  very  much 
reduced. 

It  is  certainly  somewhat  discouraging  to  find  that  the  influence 
of  farmyard  manure  was  not  favorable  under  all  circumstances. 

Nitrate  of  soda  alone. — This  generally  gave  an  increased  pro- 
portion of  grasses,  a  late-ripening  dark  green  crop,  rather  more 
leafy  than  stemmy. 

Superphosphate  and  ammonia. — This  produced  much  the  same 
effect  as  the  ammonia  added  to  other  combinations,  viz:  increas- 
ing the  grasses  and  greatly  diminishing  the  leguminous  and  mis- 
cellaneous plants. 

Minerals  and  ammonia. — Here  the  yield  was  large,  the  grasses 
much  increased,  the  legumes  and  weeds  not  improved.  The 
larger  the  amount  of  ammonia  the  more  marked  were  the  results. 

All  poor  grasses,  except  Lolium,  were  discouraged  by  the 
ammonia.  The  Ranunculacece  and  Umbelliferce,  Composite^,  Labi- 
ates were  nearly  expelled  or  greatly  diminished. 

The  grasses  on  the  plats  thus  treated  ran  much  to  leaves. 

Minerals  and  Nitrate. — The  proportion  of  grasses  was  large, 
that  of  legumes  small,  and  that  of  miscellaneous  plants  much 
reduced. 

Sulphate  of  lime,  (gypsum)  often  called  "plaster,"  sometimes 
slightly  increases  the  growth  of  leaves  and  stems  of  grasses,  but 
usually  exerts  a  very  marked  effect  to  increase  the  growth  of 
leguminous  crops. 

Disuse  of  manure. — In  such  cases  the  plants  soon  assumed  the 
conditions  of  those  on  the  unmanured  plats.  A  disuse  of  potash 
was  followed  by  a  decrease  in  the  produce  of  grasses,  a  marked 
decrease  of  the  legumes  and  an  increase  of  miscellaneous  plants. 

The  practical  conclusions  may  be  very  shortly  stated.  Drain- 
age, marling,  liming,  must  not  be  neglected.  The  application 
of  bones  is  not  recommended  for  general  adoption.  They  ap- 
pear to  be  chiefly  adapted  to  the  exhausted  pastures  of  certain 


278  THE  EFFECT  OF  MANURES. 

localities,  and  not  to  be  generally  applicable  to  meadow  land 
which  is  mown  for  hay.  The  hay  crop  is  a  great  exhauster  of 
the  mineral  constituents  of  the  soil ;  and  these  owing  to  the  high 
price  of  the  salts  of  potash,  cannot,  with  profit,  bo  fully  restored 
in  artificial  manures.  The  return  of  the  mineral  constituents  is 
better  accomplished  by  means  of  farmyard  manure,  night  soil, 
and  the  like. 

"  The  grasses  proper  appear  to  be  the  most  strikingly  inde- 
pendent of  any  artificial  supply  of  carbon.  The  hay  crop  is 
more  exhaustive  of  potash  than  wheat  or  barley. 

"A  predominance  of  mineral  elements  in  the  fertilizers  in- 
creased the  proportion  of  the  culms  of  grasses,  while  a  predom- 
inance of  ammoniacal  salts  increased  the  proportion  of  leaves. 

"  Those  manures  which  much  increased  the  produce  of  hay, 
at  the  same  time  very  much  increased  its  proportion  of  gramina- 
ceous plants. 

"  The  total  miscellaneous  herbage  (chiefly  weeds)  were  the 
most  numerous  in  kind  and  nearly  in  the  greatest  proportion  on 
the  unmanured  land,  viz:  16  per  cent.,  while  on  the  manured 
plat  they  decreased  to  2  per  cent." 

"An  artificial  manure  containing  a  sufficiency  of  mineral  and 
nitrogenous  constituents  affected  some  of  the  grasses  as  follows : 

Lolium  perenne  proportionally  considerably  increased. 

Holcus  lanatus  proportionally  largely  increased. 

Arrhenatlierum  avenaccum  proportionally  largely  diminished. 

Anthoxantlium  odoratum  proportionally  largely  diminished. 

Agrostis  vulgaris  proportionally  very  much  diminished. 

Briza  media  proportionally  very  much  diminished. 

Cynosurus  cristatus  proportionally  very  much  diminished. 

Dactylis  glomerata  proportionally  very  much  increased. 

Poa  pratensis  proportionally  very  much  diminished. 

Bromus  mollis  proportionally  reduced. 

Avena  pratensis  proportionally  increased. 


GREEN   MANURING.  379 

Plantago  lanceolata  proportionally  disappeared. 

In  the  words  of  Baron  Lawes :  "  "We  learn  from  these  results 
that  good  pasture  grasses  can  never  thrive  upon  a  poor  soil ;  and 
if  a  soil  does  not  contain  in  itself  the  elements  of  fertility  they 
must  be  added  from  external  sources.  I  may  add  that  if  the 
pasture  of  a  rich  soil  deteriorates  from  bad  treatment  the  good 
grasses  do  not  die  out,  but  only  retire  from  the  contest  to  wait 
for  better  times.  Under  invigorating  treatment  it  will  be  found 
that  the  good  grasses  soon  reassert  their  supremacy." 

"  The  general  result,  comparing  the  produce  by  the  different 
manures  in  one  and  the  same  season,  seems  to  be,  that  the  more 
the  produce  is  graminaceous  the  more  it  goes  to  flower  and  seed, 
and  the  more  it  is  ripened,  the  higher  will  be  the  percentage  of 
dry  substance  in  the  hay.  Under  the  same  circumstances,  the 
higher  will  be  the  percentage  of  woody  fiber  and  the  lower  will 
be  that  of  the  nitrogenous  compounds  and  of  the  mineral  matter. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  a  large  proportion  of  the  non-gramina- 
ceous herbage  the  reverse  of  these  things  is  true." 

In  a  summary  of  this  subject,  M.  T.  Masters,  in  Plant  Life, 
says :  "  Circumstances  are  never  exactly  twice  alike ;  a  condition 
of  absolute  equilibrium  is  never  attained.  The  nearest  approach 
to  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  unmanured  plats  and  of  the  plats  very 
highly  manured,  but  even  these  were  influenced  by  very  slight 
climatic  changes.  The  balance  in  all  cases  was  easily  disturbed. " 

Green  Manuring. — Most  of  this  paragraph  is  from  a  lecture 
by  my  colleague,  Dr.  R.  C.  Kedzie.  A  complete  manure  is 
found  in  fresh  vegetable  matter  turned  under  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  It  is  often  convenient  to  adopt  this  practice  on  arable 
fields  which  are  remote  from  the  barn  yard  where  stock  are  fed 
in  winter.  The  late  George  Geddes,  of  New  York,  adopted  this 
plan  quite  extensively,  and  believed  he  found  it  as  cheap  as  any. 
It  is  often  convenient  to  throw  in  a  growth  of  something  between 
two  other  valuable  crops.  For  example,  after  a  crop  is  removed 


280  GREEN  MANURING. 

in  autumn,  rye  is  sown  to  plow  under  for  a  late  spring  or  summer 
crop.  This  grass  grows  well  in  cool  weather,  but  does  not  return 
so  much  to  the  soil  as  red  clover  or  some  other  legume. 

In  green  manuring  the  whole  vegetable  growth  is  returned  to 
the  soil,  and  in  a  condition  to  insure  rapid  decomposition.  In 
no  other  way  can  a  soil  in  poor  condition  be  brought  into  good 
condition  so  rapidly  and  by  so  little  expenditure  of  money.  By 
its  skillful  use  the  light  and  shifting  sands  of  Belgium  have  been 
made  the  most  fruitful  fields  of  Europe. 

Many  are  prejudiced  against  green  manuring,  believing  that 
the  process  gives  back  to  the  soil  only  what  it  has  taken  from  the 
soil.  There  is  in  most  soils  a  large  store  of  reserve  material  for 
plant  food,  but  in  the  insoluble  and  inactive  form.  Certain 
plants  have  a  singular  power  of  corroding  these  insoluble  min- 
erals and  bringing  them  into  soluble  condition,  using  them  to 
build  up  their  own  tissues.  "When  such  plant  is  plowed  under 
the  soil  it  may  give  back  to  the  soil  only  what  it  took  from  the 
soil,  yet  add  greatly  to  its  fertility  because  it  has  transferred  such 
materials  from  the  retired  to  the  active  list.  But  it  is  not  true 
that  plants  give  back  to  the  soil  only  what  they  have  taken  from 
the  soil.  All  plants  take  carbon  from  the  air,  and  green  manur- 
ing is  the  easiest  way  to  increase  the  store  of  humus  in  the  soil. 
Certain  kinds  of  plants  have  singular  power  of  accumulating 
combined  nitrogen,  and  when  these  plants,  rich  in  nitrogen,  are 
plowed  under  the  soil,  they  give  to  the  soil  in  active  form  some- 
thing which  they  did  not  take  from  the  soil  in  this  form. 
Nitrogen  is  the  most  precious  and  costly  element  of  vegetable 
growth. 

In  the  Northern  States  red  clover  heads  the  list,  and  is  the 
red-plumed  commander-in-chief  of  the  manurial  forces.  Where 
the  cow  pea  thrives,  it  also  acts  much  like  red  clover  when 
plowed  under  the  soil. 


EFFECT  OF  MANURE  AND  DRAINAGE.  281 

Concerning  the  value  of  red  clover  as  a  manure,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  another  chapter  which  treats  of  that  plant. 

Eye  is  our  hardiest  cereal  and  grows  better  than  any  other  on 
the  poorest  sandy  land.  It  is  not  as  valuable  for  plowing  under 
as  some  leguminous  crop,  as  its  roots  are  smaller  and  much  less 
in  amount  and  the  plant  returns  less  to  the  soil.  As  it  will 
grow  rapidly  in  autumn  and  spring,  and  makes  a  large  bulk 
of  vegetation,  it  is  not  unf  requently  sown  for  plowing  under.  It 
often  happens  that  such  a  practice  may  be  adopted  without  the 
loss  of  another  crop. 

In  plowing  under  any  crop  to  fertilize  the  soil,  the  reader 
should  not  forget  that  animals  can  appropriate  only  a  small  per 
cent  of  what  they  eat.  The  rest  may  be  saved  and  go  back  to 
the  soil. 

"In  estimating  the  value  of  the  manure  made  by  animals, 
only  the  nitrogenous  and  ash  constituents  of  the  food  are  con- 
sidered, as  the  carbonaceous  elements  are  supplied  by  the 
atmosphere.  Over  95  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen  and  ash  constitu- 
ents are  voided  in  the  excrement  in  the  cases  of  sheep  and  oxen. 
This  shows  a  very  small  waste  of  the  fertilizing  matter  of  food  in 
fattening  sheep.  If  90  to  95  per  cent  of  these  fertilizing  con- 
stituents of  food  could  be  actually  saved  by  farmers  and  returned 
to  the  soil,  then  it  is  easy  to  see  the  effect  that  must  be  pro- 
duced by  judicious  stock-feeding  upon  the  depleted  soils  of  the 
New  England  and  Middle  States.  The  farmer  should  also 
remember  that  considerably  more  than  half  of  the  fertilizing  of 
manure  is  to  be  found  in  the  urine,  and  this  is  much  the  more 
valuable,  according  to  the  quantity,  as  it  is  all  soluble  and 
becomes  immediate  and  active  plant  food." — (Feeding  Animals, 
by  E.  W.  Stewart.) 

Manure  and  Drainage  Improve  the  Quality  of  Grasses.— 
We  have  nothing  better  to  offer  in  this  connection  than  the 
36 


282  EFFECTS  OF  IRRIGATION. 

results  of  some  excellent  experiments  by  Dr.  A.  Voelcker, 
recorded  in  Jour.  Boy.  Ag.  Soc.,  p.  377,  1866 : 

"  A  comparison  of  the  composition  of  the  improved  hay  with 
that  from  the  unimproved  pastures  offers  several  points  of  in- 
terest. 

"The  proportion  of  woody  fiber  in  the  good  hay  is  much 
reduced. 

"The  amount  of  flesh  forming  material  is  considerably 
increased.  • 

"The  total  amount  of  albuminous  compounds  is  increased  one- 
fourth. 

"The  difference  in  the  proportion  of  sugar  and  other  soluble 
matters  is  very  marked,  the  bad  hay  containing  only  1 0  per  cent, 
the  good  hay  nearly  15  per  cent  of  sugar. 

"  The  proportion  of  fatty  or  waxy  constituents  likewise  is 
larger. 

"  The  increase  in  the  soluble  mineral  matter  shows  that  the 
good  hay  is  the  more  succulent." 

This  subject  is  also  considered  in  the  section  prepared  by 
Professor  Armsby. 

Here  we  see,  then,  that  arable  land  produces  grasses  of  better 
quality  than  marsh  land,  that  rich  land  produces  richer  grasses 
than  poor  land,  and  every  farmer  knows  that  grass  grown  in  the 
open  meadow  is  more  nutritious  than  that  grown  in  the  shade  of 
trees,  that  the.  short  growth  in  a  dry  season  is  more  valuable  per 
ton  than  the  rank  growth  in  a  wet  season. 

Effects  of  Irrigation. — The  writer  has  had  very  little  experi- 
ence in  irrigation,  but  briefly  gives  the  opinions  and  results  of 
some  cxperimentors,  hoping  thereby  to  set  farmers  to  thinking, 
observing,  reading,  and  experimenting  on  this  interesting  sub- 
ject. To  conduct  irrigation  properly  is  quite  an  art,  but  it  has 
often  been  well  done  with  surprising  results,  converting  a  lean, 
hungry  meadow  into  an  oasis.  Sinclair,  in  his  famous  old  work 


EFFECTS  OF  IRRIGATION.  283 

on  grasses,  says :  "  Irrigation  is  the  easiest,  cheapest,  and  most 
certain  mode  of  improving  poor  land,  in  particular  if  it  is  of  a 
dry  and  gravelly  nature.  The  land  is  thus  put  into  a  state  of 
perpetual  fertility,  without  any  occasion  for  manure." 

To  the  farmers  of  Connecticut,  J.  S.  Gould  said:  "You 
should  sow  many  differant  varieties  of  grasses  and  by  the  aid  of 
irrigation  you  would  have  seven  or  eight  times  the  amount  of 
grass  you  now  do."  To  the  same  people,  Solon  Robinson  said 
he  had  no  doubt  that  if  the  streams  of  Connecticut  were  properly 
utilized  in  irrigating  the  soil,  they  would  be  more  productive  in 
value  than  by  turning  all  the  water-wheels  of  the  State. 

After  experimenting  on  this  subject,  Mr.  Pusey,  in  Jour.  Roy. 
Ag.  Soc.  for  1849,  said  that  the  money  spent  in  irrigating  grass 
land  yielded  a  profit  of  30  per  cent.  "All  water  is  a  weak  liquid 
manure, — the  warmer  the  water  the  better.  A  slight  film  of 
water  trickling  over  the  surface — for  it  must  not  stagnate — 
rouses  the  sleeping  grass,  tinges  it  with  living  green  and  brings 
forth  a  luxuriant  crop  in  early  spring,  just  when  it  is  most 
wanted,  while  the  other  meadows  are  still  bare  and  brown.  A 
water  meadow  is  the  triumph  of  agricultural  art.  The  best  irri- 
gated meadows  are  those  upon  a  gravelly  soil,  with  a  good  drain- 
age." 

Tenacious  clays  are  less  suitable  for  irrigation,  and  then  only 
when  well  drained  so  the  water  can  pass  off  at  once.  Water 
from  streams  is  generally  preferred  to  that  from  wells  and 
springs.  In  cold  weather  water  may  overflow  grass,  and  if  not 
frozen  to  the  grass  it  may  remain  there  for  weeks  or  months 
without  harm,  but  in  warm  weather  the  case  is  quite  different. 
Some  spring  waters  contain  sulphate  of  iron  in  solution  or  other 
matters  injurious.  Diluted  liquid  manure  has  often  been  arti- 
ficially applied  with  most  excellent  results.  Where  meadows  are 
irrigated  the  grasses  are  cut  four  or  five  times  a  year  yielding 


EFFECTS  OF  IRRIGATION. 


enormous  crops.  Such  land  is  seldom  used  for  pasture,  as  it 
becomes  too  soft  and  is  more  profitable  for  mowing. 

We  will  next  read  what  Prof.  J.  Buckman  says  in  Jour.  Roy. 
Ag.  Soc.,  p.  467,  1854 :  "  By  irrigation  the  list  of  grasses  change ; 
bad  grasses  will  nearly  all  die  out,  or  greatly  improve  in  quality, 
whilst  many  good  ones,  few  in  number  before,  rapidly  increase. 
Again,  such  weeds  as  Plantago  major,  Ranunculus  bulbosus,  Pan- 
Icifm  sanguinale,  and  many  others  give  place  to  a  growth  of 
grasses. 

1 '  Take  the  following  on  the  observations  of  a  meadow  which 
was  irrigated  in  an  inferior  manner.  It  had  a  subsoil  of  oolitic 
gravel,  and  its  product  was  that  of  a  thin  upland  pasture.  How 
much  it  has  changed  will  be  seen  from  the  annexed  table,  which 
is  designed  to  supply  information  on  the  following  points : — 

1.  The  names  of  the  grasses  observed. 

2.  The  proportions  of  those  observed  in  the  meadow  before  ir- 
rigation. 

3.  The  changes  effected  in  two  years. 

4.  Those  affected  on  the  fourth  year. 


PB 

OPORTION 

s. 

NAMES. 

Before 
Irrigation. 

After  two 
years' 
Irrigation. 

After  four 
years* 
Irrigation. 

Alopec-urus  pratensis,  Meadow  foxtail  

1 

2 

4 

Poa  pratensis,  June  grass  

2 

3 

4 

Poa  trivialis,  Roughish  meadow  grass  

1 

2 

1 

Briza  media,  Quaking  grass  

2 

0 

o 

Cynosurus  cristatus,  Dog's  tail  grass 

2 

1 

o 

Aira  ccespitosa,  Hossack  grass  ..     .. 

1 

o 

o 

Agrnstisi  stnJ,nni.ft>.rn.}  Marsh  hfint 

1 

2 

3 

Dactylis  glomerata,  Orchard  grass,  Cock's  foot. 
Avena  flavescens,  Yellow  oat  grass 

1 
2 

2 
3 

3 
3 

Avena  pubescens,  soft  oat  grass 

1 

1 

1 

JSordeam  pratense,  Meadow  barley 

1 

2 

2 

Loliuin  perenne,  Rye  grass 

2 

4 

6 

EFFECTS  OF  IRRIGATION. 


"This  field  trebled  in  value  in  four  years.  The  table  shows  us 
that  all  the  better  grasses  have  increased,  if  we  except  the  Poa 
trivialis  and  Hordeum  pratense,  in  which  cases  there  has  been  an 
increase  in  grasses  not  possessing  the  best  character.  In  the 
first  of  these  there  is  a  decline  in  the  fourth  year. 

"  Now  if  we  take  into  consideration  the  same  set  of  facts,  as 
presented  by  herbs  of  other  families,  the  alteration  is  still  more 
striking  as  attested  by  the  following  table : 


PE 

OPORTIOK 

s. 

NAMES. 

Before 
Irrigation. 

After  two 
years' 
Irrigation. 

After  four 
years' 
Irrigation. 

Ranunculus  acris,  Meadow  crowfoot  

1 

3 

1 

Ranunculus  bulbosus,  Bulbous  crowfoot  

3 

1 

0 

Plantago  lanceolata,  Narrow  leaved  plantain.  .. 
Plantago  media,  Broad  leaved  plantain 

3 
3 

0 

1 

0 

Trifolium  repens,  Dutch  clover 

2 

0 

0 

Trifolium  pratense,  Red  clover 

1 

2 

2 

Anthriscux  vulgaris,  Beaked  parsley 

1 

2 

1 

•"'  Now  this  table  points  out  the  important  fact  that  large  and 
innutritions  herbs  in  pastures  are  destroyed  by  irrigation,  and 
the  previous  one  makes  it  clear  that  their  places  are  supplied  by 
the  grasses. 

''Parsley  and  docks  should  be  pulled  as  the  latter  is  largely  in- 
creased by  irrigation." 

In  other  words,  we  conclude  that  the  best  grasses  are  a  sign  of 
good  land  or  good  treatment  by  manuring  or  draining  or  irriga- 
tion. They  are  the  most  sensitive  to  good  or  bad  treatment ; 
they  are  hearty  feeders,  and  are  the  most  exhaustive  to  the  soil. 
Sedges,  rushes,  mosses,  ox-eye  daisies,  and  most  other  weeds, 
point  to  land  that  is  out  of  order. 


886  MAKING  HAY. 

CHAPTER   XII. 
MAKING  HAY. 

Cutting  and  Curing  Hay. — Within  a  few  years  we  have  given 
up  the  sickle  for  the  scythe,  and  the  scythe  for  the  horse-mower. 
The  hay-tedder  takes  the  place  of  several  weary  boys  in  tossing 
the  new  mown  grass;  the  horse-rake  with  a  spring  seat  for  the 
driver  takes  the  place  of  the  old  hand  rake.  In  some  places  the 
hay-loader  is  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  wagon  and  saves  much 
heavy  work.  The  large  hay  forks  with  a  rope,  a  few  pulleys,  a 
horse,  a  boy  and  a  little  planning  by  the  farmer,  elevate  the 
hay  in  large  bunches  to  the  top  of  the  highest  stack  or  the  hay 
loft.  This  is  all  easy,  if  you  have  good  tools  and  know  how  to 
manage,  but  no  book  can  tell  a  beginner  all  about  it.  The  op- 
erator must  use  his  own  judgment  in  deciding  between  that 
which  is  valuable  and  that  which  is  not  worthy  of  his  attention. 

Implements  are  all  the  time  improving,  and  enterprising  man- 
ufacturers see  that  the  farmers  know  the  fact.  Instructions  are 
freely  given  in  reference  to  their  use,  hence  little  need  here  be 
said  in  reference  to  them. 

Previous  to  haying  the  business  farmer  will  put  everything  in 
good  order.  He  has  a  few  extra  bolts,  nuts,  one  or  more  extra  sickle- 
bars  and  sections,  and  is  prepared  to  meet  slight  accidents  with- 
out delay.  He  has  a  good  steady  team  and  a  careful  driver  who 
has  some  tact  with  tools.  Before  the  grass  had  made  much 
growth  some  pains  was  taken  to  remove  stones,  stumps  or  other 
obstructions,  or  to  mark  them  so  their  location  could  be  known 
when  the  grass  had  become  tall. 

For  the  prospects  of  fair,  settled  weather  he  no  longer  relies 
wholly  on  the  almanac,  the  moon's  phases  or  the  weather 


MAKING  HAY.  387 

prophets,  after  the  manner  of  his  forefathers,  but  consults  the 
"probabilities"  of  the  signal  service. — (Killebrew.) 

If  the  grass  is  heavy,  the  dew  should  be  nearly  off  before  begin- 
ning. If  the  cutting  bar  is  at  one  side  the  driver  strikes  out 
with  the  " off  horse"  next  to  the  fence;  he  then  turns  about, 
driving  over  the  swath  last  cut,  and  goes  around  as  much  as  he 
chooses.  Or  if  he  use  a  Eureka  or  other  mower  where  the  ma- 
chine follows  the  team  immediately,  he  may  go  back  and  forth 
on  one  side  or  proceed  in  some  other  manner. 

Before  noon,  and  perhaps  after  noon  also,  the  hay  tedder  stirs 
the  grass  once  or  more.  Towards  night  it  is  raked  and  put  into 
cocks.  If  there  is  much  clover  the  tedder  must  not  be  used 
after  the  leaves  have  dried,  as  it  crumbles  and  wastes  the 
most  valuable  part  of  the  hay.  The  leaves  of  clover  will  dry  a 
long  time  before  the  stems. 

If  cut  late  in  the  afternoon,  or  in  the  evening,  so  it  does  not 
wilt,  no  harm  will  come  if  a  heavy  dew  falls  on  the  hay.  If  the 
day  is  a  fair  one  it  is  not  good  practice  to  cut  grass  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day  and  leave  it  partially  cured  exposed  to  dew  or  rain. 

The  finest  hay  is  made  in  dry,  sunless  weather,  with  little  dew, 
and  as  little  handling  over  as  possible.  Burning  too  long  in  the 
hot  sun  renders  the  hay  brittle,  and  some  of  it  will  be  lost  in 
handling. 

As  usually  made,  the  best  clover  hay  is  only  fairly  wilted  be- 
fore it  is  put  in  the  cock,  where  it  remains  from  four  to  seven 
days.  In  the  meantime  the  cocks  are  carefully  opened  once  or 
more  each  into  two  or  three  piles  for  an  hour  or  two,  then  put 
up  again. 

If  not  very  well  cured,  hay  will  keep  better  in  a  close  mow  in 
the  barn  than  in  a  loft  or  in  a  stack  where  it  is  much  exposed  to 
the  air.  The  closer  the  barn  the  better  for  the  hay. 

The  following  was  prepared  by  Prof.  H.  P.  Armsby,  of  Wis- 
consin : 


288  MAKING  HAY. 

Effect  of  Drying. — "All  the  nutrients  of  dry,  coarse  fodder 
are  digested  and  resorbed  to  the  same  extent  as  when  it  is  fed 
green.  This  is  only  true  when  the  fodder  and  the  hay  are  other- 
wise of  exactly  the  same  quality,  when  both  are  cut  at  the  same 
time  and  from  the  same  field,  and  when  none  of  the  leaves  or 
other  tender  and  especially  nutritious  parts  are  lost  during  the 
preparation  of  hay.  These  considerations  are  never  completely- 
reached  in  practice. 

"  Tlie  digestibility  of  the  organic  constituents  of  a  fodder  is  in 
no  way  altered  by  simply  drying  in  the  air,  provided  it  is  exe- 
cuted without  loss  of  parts  of  the  plants.  The  ordinary  method 
of  making  hay  involves  a  considerable  loss  of  leaves,  and  the 
product  suffers  not  only  in  its  quality  but  in  its  digestibility  as 
well. 

"  Effect  of  Storing. — The  storing  of  fodder  for  a  long  time, 
even  when  all  necessary  preventions,  such  as  a  dry  and  airy  loca- 
tion, etc.,  are  observed,  may  decrease  both  its  digestibility  and 
palatability. 

"  Period  of  Growth. — Early  cut  forage  is  not  only  superior, 
other  things  being  equal,  to  late  cut,  as  regards  its  chemical 
composition,  but  it  excels  it  also  in  digestibility.  This  fact  is 
established  by  abundance  of  experimental  evidence. 

' f  Digestibility  is  not  sensibly  increased  by  steaming  or  ensi- 
lage. In  practice,  however,  the  palatability  of  a  fodder  may 
often  be  very  considerably  increased  by  suitable  preparation,  and 
the  animals  thus  induced  to  eat  larger  quantities  of  fodder  not 
perhaps  agreeable  to  them  in  its  natural  state. 

"  The  Fertility  of  the  Soil  affects  the  Quality  of  Plant.— 
The  natural  quality  and  fertility  of  a  soil  have  a  very  consider- 
able influence  on  the  chemical  composition  of  the  crop.  Still 
greater  differences  often  show  themselves  when  dark  green 
'  rank '  plants  are  compared  with  pale  yellowish-green  ones  of 
the  same  kind,  occurring  in  the  same  field,  and  of  the  same  age. 


MAKING  HAY.  389 

It  is  questionable  whether  very  high  manuring  really  gives  more 
nutritious  fodder  than  can  be  got  from  soil  of  good  fertility. 

"  Method  of  Curing. — All  methods  and  appliances  which  di- 
minish the  amount  of  handling  which  the  hay  must  receive,  es- 
pecially when  it  is  nearly  dry,  tend  to  improve  the  quality  of  the 
product  by  avoiding  mechanical  losses.  So,  too,  it  is  desirable 
to  dry  the  grass  as  little  as  is  consistent  with  the  object  of  curing, 
sufficient  to  ensure  the  keeping  of  the  fodder,  since  the  dryer 
and  more  brittle  it  becomes  the  greater  is  the  loss  by  handling. 
In  the  process  of  ' ensilage'  these  losses  are  largely  avoided, 
but  the  process  of  fermentation  causes  a  loss.  Recent  results 
obtained  at  the  New  York  Experiment  Station,  and  at  Hough- 
ton  Farm,  seem  to  show  that  corn-ensilage  suffers  very  little 
loss  from  fermentation. 

"  Damage  by  Rain. — Both  analysis  and  digestion  experiments 
confirm  the  common  observation  that  hay  which  has  been  wet  is 
diminished  in  value. 

"  Early  or  Late  Cutting. — Young  plants  while  rapidly  grow- 
ing contain  relatively  more  protein  and  less  fibre  than  more  ma- 
ture ones,  consequently  early  cut  fodder  must  be  of  better  quality 
than  that  cut  late.  It  is  more  digestible. 

"  Three  elements  enter  into  the  problem  of  selecting  the  best 
time  for  cutting,  viz:  the  quality  of  the  fodder,  its  quantity, 
and  the  amount  of  labor  expended  upon  it.  While  any  grass  is 
ripening  a  large  part  of  the  protein  and  starch  passes  from  the 
leaves  and  stem  to  the  seeds,  which  are  so  small  that  they  are 
seldom  masticated  or  digested.  Moreover,  they  are  easily  lost  in 
curing.  The  hay  made  from  fully  ripe  grass  is  essentially  straw. 

"  If  only  one  crop  is  to  be  obtained,  probably  the  best  time  for 
cutting  is  usually  when  the  plants  are  just  beginning  to  blossom. 
At  this  time  a  larger  crop  is  obtained  than  if  cut  earlier,  while 
the  digestibility  is  not  seriously  impaired. 
37 


290 


MAKING  HAY. 


"  If  cut  early  there  is  a  great  advantage  to  the  second  crop,  as 
shown  by  an  experiment  at  Hohenheim : 


Percentage 
of  Protein. 

Total  pounds 
of  Protein. 

Total  dry  mat- 
ter, pounds. 

One  cut 

16.3 

434 

2,662 

Two  cuts 

24.4 

668 

3,274 

' '  The  following  table,  taken  from  Chemistry  of  the  Farm, 
shows  the  percentage  composition  of  meadow  grass  cut  at  three 
different  dates  in  the  same  field.  The  first  cutting  will  repre- 
sent pasture  grass  fed  off  in  the  green  state  by  stock ;  the  second 
cutting  is  good  ordinary  hay ;  the  third  cutting  is  an  over- ripe 
hay,  somewhat  coarse  and  stemmy,  but  well  harvested. 


Date  of  Cutting. 

Albuminoids. 

Fat. 

Soluble 
Carbo-hydrates. 

Fiber. 

Ash. 

May  14  

17.65 

3.19 

40.86 

22.97 

15.33 

June  9 

11.16 

2.74 

43.27 

34.88 

7.95 

June  26 

8.46 

2.71 

43.34 

38.15 

7.34 

"  These  numbers  speak  most  decidedly  in  favor  of  early  cutting. 
When  the  fodder  was  cut  twice,  not  only  was  the  quality  far  bet- 
ter, as  shown  by  the  percentage  of  protein,  but  the  absolute 
quantity  both  of  protein  and  of  dry  matter  per  acre  was  nearly 
one-half  greater.  When  we  take  into  account  the  greater  di- 
gestibility of  the  young  hay,  the  gain  becomes  still  greater.  Ex- 
periments indicate  that  the  richest  fodder  and  the  largest  yield 
of  digestible  matters  per  acre  may  be  obtained  by  cutting  two 
or  more  crops  of  comparatively  young  grass  in  a  season,  rather 
than  one  crop  of  over-ripe  vegetation. 

"  In  practice,  however,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  length  of  the 
season,  the  kind  of  grass,  the  cost  of  labor,  etc.,  have  to  be  oon- 


MAKING  HAY.  291 

sidered.  Kowen  is  more  liable  to  injury  from  wet  than  coaaser 
hay.  It  may  often  be  cheaper  to  get  one  large  crop  of  hay,  even 
of  poorer  quality,  and  supplement  it  with  concentrated  fodders. 

"  The  only  direct  feeding  trials  that  have  been  made  on  this 
point,  so  far  as  I  know,  are  those  made  by  Professor  Sanborn,  of 
Missouri.  So  far  as  they  go  they  indicate  that  the  value  of  early- 
cut  hay  may  have  been  over-rated. 

"  Legumes. — The  legumes  are  characterized  by  the  large  pro- 
portion of  protein  contained  in  the  plant  as  a  whole,  and  in  the 
seeds.  As  fodders,  when  properly  cut  and  cured,  they  are  very 
rich,  but  have  the  disadvantage  of  being  rather  bulky,  and  of 
being  easily  subject  to  deterioration  by  mechanical  losses.  As  a 
general  rule  clover  is  richer  in  nitrogenous  matters  than  grass, 
Compared  with  meadow  hay,  which  is  made  from  the  true 
grasses,  its  protein  is  about  equally  digestible,  its  crude  fibre  de- 
cidedly less  digestible." 

In  trying  to  decide  which  is  the  proper  stage  of  growth  for 
cutting  grass  for  hay  we  should  not  forget  that  a  late  growth  of 
the  plants  nearly  to  seeding  impairs  their  strength.  In  case  of 
red  clover,  it  greatly  interferes  with  the  crop  of  seed  which  is 
obtained  from  the  second  cutting. 

The  following  on  this  question  is  by  Prof.  W.  H.  Jordan, 
taken  from  the  Philadelphia  Press : 

"What  if  sorghum  does  have  more  saccharose  and  less  glucose 
when  the  seeds  are  formed  or  are  ripe?  Is  it  more  nutritious? 
We  have  no  reason  for  thinking  so.  Starch  and  the  various 
sugars  and  other  carbohydrates  have  just  the  same  office,  and,  so 
far  as  we  can  judge,  nearly  the  same  value  in  animal  nutrition, 
so  how  does  a  change  from  glucose  to  saccharose,  or  from  starch 
to  sugar,  very  materially  affect  the  nutritive  value  of  a  plant? 
In  the  processes  of  digestion  starch  is  changed  to  glucose,  and  in 
that  form  passes  into  the  blood.  Sugar  in  the  blood  requires 
somewhat  less  work  for  its  preparation  for  use  by  the  animal 


292  MAKING  HAY. 

body,  and  is,  undoubtedly,  somewhat  more  completely  utilized 
than  is  the  case  with  starch.  But  the  final  form  and  office  is 
the  same  with  both  starch  and  the  sugars  or  foods. 

"  It  is,  therefore,  difficult  to  see  how  a  change  from  glucose  to 
saccharose  in  sorghum  can  effect  the  intrinsic  value.  But  why 
compare  sorghum  and  Timothy  anyway?  One  is  a  sugar-bear- 
ing plant,  the  other  is  not. 

"  Because  sorghum,  a  sugar-producing  plant,  is  worth  most 
for  making  sugar  when  the  seeds  are  ripe,  why  should  it  follow 
that  Timothy,  a  plant  containing  in  advanced  age  a  very  small 
quantity  of  sugar,  is  most  nutritious  when  the  seeds  are  formed? 
We  cannot  determine  the  effect  that  age  has  upon  the  nutritive 
value  of  any  known  fodder  plant  by  the  increase  or  decrease  of 
a  single  compound.  Plant  substance  is  complex,  is  made  up  of 
many  compounds,  and  we  must  measure  nutritive  value  by  the 
total  quantity  of  digestible  nutrients,  taking  into  account  also 
their  form  and  relative  quantities. 

"Our  knowledge  of  changes  occurring  in  Timothy  grass 
through  age  is,  briefly,  as  follows : 

"(1.)  The  nitrogenous  compounds  decrease  and  the  carbohy- 
drates (starch,  sugar,  etc.)  increase  in  relative  amounts. 

"(2.)  There  is  no  conclusive  evidence  that  the  nitrogenous 
compounds  assume  more  valuable  forms  in  the  later  stages  of 
growth  than  when  the  plant  is  in  bloom. 

"(3.)  With  the  carbohydrates  there  is  a  change  of  material 
into  the  form  of  crude  fibre.  Crude  fibre  is  in  part  digestible, 
and  to  that  extent  is  as  valuable  as  digestible  starch. 

"(4.)  The  nutrients  in  young  grass  are  more  largely  digesti- 
ble than  in  old. 

"  (5.)  This  decrease  in  percentage  of  digestibility  may  be  in 
part  or  even  wholly  compensated  by  the  greater  acreage  produc- 
tion in  the  case  of  mature  grass.  Whether  this  is  so,  undoubt- 
edly, depends  largely  upon  the  locality  and  season. 


MAKING  HAY.  293 

"  Purely  chemical  facts  favor  very  strongly  the  idea  that  a 
pound  of  dry  substance,  as  existing  in  Timothy  when  in  bloom, 
is  more  valuable  than  a  pound  of  dry  substance  at  any  later  pe- 
riod, in  much  the  same  way  (but  in  a  less  degree)  that  a  pound 
of  dry  substance  in  young  pasture  grass  is  more  valuable  than 
the  same  quantity  of  material  in  the  mature  plant." 

The  following  opinion,  based  on  experiments,  by  Prof.  J.  W. 
Sanborn,  of  Missouri,  differs  from  the  above :  He  recommends 
cutting  grass,  mostly  Timothy,  as  soon  as  one-fourth  part  of  the 
heads  were  in  bloom,  and  other  lots  ten  days  later,  when  out  of 
bloom,  and  after  the  seed  had  begun  to  mature.  After  repeated 
trials  in  feeding  steers,  and  cows  giving  milk,  he  says  the  results 
indicate,  not  only  that  the  amount  of  hay  gathered  from  a  given 
area  are  much  larger  when  cut  after  bloom  than  when  cut  in 
bloom,  but  the  late-cut  hay  was  more  nutritious.  He  believes 
that  Timothy  or  clover  hay,  particularly  the  former,  is  worth 
more  per  pound,  and  for  Timothy  thirty-five  to  forty  per  cent, 
more  per  acre,  for  cutting  when  sufficiently  out  of  bloom  in  pref- 
erence to  cutting  in  bloom  or  before  blooming.  From  some  ex- 
perience he  concludes  that  this  is  also  true  of  corn  fodder,  and 
he  is  inclined  to  believe  it  is  true  of  most  vegetation. 

The  writer  thinks  it  very  doubtful  whether  it  is  best  to  cut  all 
forage  plants  at  the  same  stage  of  advancement. 

Most  farmers,  as  a  rule,  prefer  to  cut  clover  when  a  few  of  the 
first  heads  begin  to  turn  brown. 

If  the  grass  has  made  a  pretty  good  growth,  and  the  bottom  is 
not  wet  from  damp  weather,  it  is  the  safest  plan  to  begin  haying 
early.  Something  will  very  likely  interrupt  so  that  the  grass 
last  cut  will  be  older  than  it  should  be  for  good  hay. 

Unless  the  weather  is  favorable  it  is  difficult  to  cure  well  a 
thick  growth  of  very  young,  succulent  grass. 

When  the  growth  is  thick,  some  of  the  lower  leaves  begin  to 
decay,  while  those  at  the  top  are  gaining.  To  save  all  the  leaves 


294  MAKING  HAY. 

grass  must  be  cut  when  young.  Very  much  will  depend  on  the 
condition  of  the  weather.  If  the  sun  is  obscured  by  clouds  and 
rain  descends  every  few  hours,  the  grass  intended  for  hay  must 
be  left  standing  even  though  it  bo  going  to  seed.  For  making 
hay  wo  need  dry  weather,  but  we  can  fill  a  silo  rain  or  shine. 

Another  reason  for  cutting  early  must  not  be  overlooked.  It 
will  bo  noticed  while  reading  the  chapter  on  Insects  Injurious  to 
Grasses  and  Clovers,  that  in  many  cases  early  cutting  is  recom- 
mended as  an  effectual  remedy. 

It  will  be  ceen  that  i;  is  by  no  means  an  easy  matter  to  select 
the  best  time  for  cutting  or  the  best  process  of  curing  grasses 
and  clovers,  or  to  tell  just  how  much  it  is  safe  to  rely  on  chem- 
ical analyses  to  help  determine  these  questions;  and  when  we 
come  to  the  test  of  feeding  the  difficulties  aro  still  increased  on 
account  of  a  changing  climate,  differences  in  the  animals  se- 
lected, and  other  things  only  thought  of  by  men  who  have  care- 
fully experimented  in  feeding  domestic  animals. 

Partially  cured  hay  may  be  pressed  into  very  solid  bales,  and 
not  injure  by  heating.  It  keeps  much  like  ensilage  in  a  silo. 

If  the  hay  in  the  cocks  is  too  damp,  before  drawing  it  should 
be  opened  an  hour  or  two.  No  fixed  rule  can  be  laid  down  to 
guide  the  farmer.  Remember  that  dew  and  rain  wash  out  much 
of  the  best  portion  of  grass  after  it  has  been  cured,  or  partially 
cured. 

A  few  minutes  of  an  expert  will  show  a  beginner  how  to  put 
hay  into  neat  cocks  of  75  to  200  Ibs.  or  more  each.  The  hay  at 
the  top  should  spread  and  hang  down  the  sides  to  help  carry  off 
rain,  should  any  occur.  General  W.  G.  LeDuc,  of  Minnesota, 
has  the  following  on  this  topic: 

"  There  is  an  art  in  cocking  the  clover  hay  so  that  it  will  shed 
rain,  and  the  best  hay  makers  in  this  locality  claim  to  have  ac- 
quired the  difficult  art  of  thatching  the  clover  cocks  by  dexterity 
in  handling  the  fork  and  laying  the  hay.  They  insist  on  taking 


MAKING  CLOVER  HAY  IN  ONE  DAY.  295 

tip  small  forkfuls  of  the  windrow,  placing  one  on  top  of  another 
until  they  have  a  miniature  cock,  then  taking  it  up  on  a  four- 
tined  fork  and  turning  it  skillfully  so  that  the  center  of  the 
forkful  comes  down,  inverted  upon  the  center  of  the  forming 
cock.  The  cocks  must  be  small  and  tall — such  as  will  stand  se- 
curely until  the  sunshine  of  the  morrow." 

Making  Clover  Hay  in  One  Day.— By  Hon.  L.  N.  Bonh&m, 
Oxford,  Ohio: 

"For  several  years  I  put  up  clover  hay  as  did  my  father  and 
other  Jersey  farmers.  I  have  long  since  abandoned  their  method 
and  now  put  my  clover  hay  in  the  mow  the  same  day  it  is  cut. 
The  hay  is  f;ir  better,  and  the  labor  and  risk  in  making  it  are 
far  less.  I  select  a  bright  day  and  start  the  mower  as  soon  as 
the  dew  is  off. 

"  By  11  o'clock  I  have  cut  as  much  as  can  be  hauled  in  be- 
tween 1  and  5  o'clock.  The  clover  is  then  all  turned  and  shaken 
up  loose  before  we  go  to  dinner.  By  1  o'clock  it  is  dry  enough 
to  rake  into  windrows  if  the  day  is  an  average  hay  day.  No  time 
is  lost  now  in  getting  it  into  the  mow.  The  hay  is  warm  and 
free  from  external  moisture.  The  warmer  it  is  the  less  moisture 
is  left  on  it.  By  5  o'clock  we  have  it  all  in  the  mow,  if  we  can. 
If  not  all  in  then  we  prefer  to  leave  it  in  the  windrow  until  near 
noon  the  next  day.  After  we  stop  hauling,  at  5  P.  M.,  the  mower 
is  started  to  cut  what  Te  can  haul  in  the  next  day.  The  clover 
cut  so  late  in  the  day  is  not  wet  with  dew,  and  will  not  wilt 
enough  to  be  blackened  by  the  dew.  It  will  be  ready  to  shake 
up  and  spread  out  before  10  o'clock  the  next  day,  and  by  1 
o'clock  wo  can  begin  to  haul  it  into  the  mow. 

"  The  clover  hay  thus  made  goes  into  the  mow  bright  and  with 
every  leaf  and  head  left  on  it.  The  secret  of  the  whole  business 
is,  it  is  free  from  external  moisture,  while  the  warmth  of  the  hay 
Avhen  it  goes  into  the  mow  hastens  the  approach  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  mass  up  to  122,  when  the  germs  which  cause  in- 


296  MAKING  CLOVER  HAY  IN  ONE  DAY. 

creased  fermentation  are  destroyed,  and  the  hay  keeps  bright 
and  sweet,  and  comes  out  fragrant  clover,  with  all  the  heads  and 
leaves  of  good  color. 

"My  mow  is  28x28,  and  as  tight  as  good  siding  and  strips 
painted  can  make  it.  There  are  no  windows  in  the  sides  to  let 
in  air.  The  clover  is  put  in  as  compactly  as  we  can  get  it,  to 
save  room,  and  kept  level,  to  have  the  heat  uniform. 

te  Sometimes  we  sprinkle  a  half  gallon  of  salt  to  the  load  when 
putting  into  the  mow,  but  this  is  of  doubtful  value. 

" '  To  exclude  the  air  '  from  the  top  of  my  clover  mow,  I  often 
cover  with  straw.  But  this  does  not  pack  closely.  I  find  it 
better  when  hauling  in  wheat  to  fill  up  over  the  clover  with 
wheat.  This  excludes  air,  and  packs  the  clover  so  that  it  keeps 
bright  to  the  very  top. 

"  The  old  theory  that  the  mow  must  be  open  and  the  clover 
thrown  in  loose,  and  treated  to  'plenty  of  salt,'  which  may 
mean  much  or  little,  is  exploded.  Green  clover  will  keep  green 
in  the  silo  if  well  packed  and  the  air  is  excluded.  Clover  hay, 
put  into  the  mow  warm  and  dry,  the  day  it  is  cut,  will  keep 
brighter  and  purer  and  sweeter  than  if  cured  longer  in  the  field. 

"The  trouble,  however,  in  farmers  adopting  the  method  I 
have  successfully  used,  is  they  do  not  attach  enough  importance 
to  the  fact  that  the  conditions  named  must  be  followed. 

"  It  will  not  do  to  cut  clover  in  the  morning  and  haul  it  in 
after  sun-down.  It  will  surely  mould  or  come  out  brown  or  fire 
fanged,  simply  because  dew  falls  at  5  o'clock. 

"Nor  can  we  cut  clover  and  put  in  the  mow  the  same  day 
without  favorable  conditions  of  sun  and  air.  In  neither  case 
will  the  hay  go  in  free  from  external  moisture." 

The  above  account  was  clipped  from  the  Farmer's  Review. 

Hay  caps  are  sometimes  used,  and  we  never  heard  of  a  farmer 
who  threw  them  aside  after  he  had  once  used  them.  They  will 
sometimes  save  their  cost  in  a  single  season.  They  are  about  six 


DRYING  BY  HOT  AIR  FROM  FURNACE.  297 

feet  square  and  made  of  good  common  unbleached  muslin.  At 
each  corner  is  an  eyelet  for  pegs  to  run  through  into  the  sides  of 
the  hay  cock,  or  stout  cords  may  be  fastened  to  the  corners  and 
long  enough  to  reach  to  the  pegs  which  stick  in  the  ground. 
In  fair  weather  the  caps  need  not  be  used,  but  when  rain  threat- 
ens a  man  will  sleep  better  with  his  hay  covered,  unless  per- 
chance, as  is  related  in  the  Country  Gentleman,  some  stranger 
wakes  him  up  to  tell  him  there  are  a  lot  of  white  cows  in  his 
meadow. 

Drying  by  Hot  Air  from  a  Furnace  or  the  Use  of  a  Fan. 
— "W.  A.  Gibbs,  of  Essex,  England,  has  patented  a  contrivance 
for  driving  hot  air  from  a  furnace  among  the  half-made  hay  as  it 
is  tossed  by  revolving  forks  in  a  long  trough.  This  is  some- 
times valuable  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  where  they  are  sub- 
ject to  rains,  especially  for  curing  aftermath  when  the  sun  is  low 
and  the  days  short. 

Morton's  Crops  of  the  Farm  gives  another  plan  which  seems 
likely  to  come  into  more  general  use.  It  consists  in  providing 
a  horizontal  shaft,  either  under  the  ground  on  which  the  rick  is 
built,  or,  by  means  of  suitable  boarding,  within  the  lower  layer 
of  the  rick  itself,  and  connecting  with  it,  one  or  more  upright 
shafts  into  the  body  of  the  rick.  A  f,an  is  used  at  the  outer  end 
of  the  main  shaft,  and  draws  the  air  through  the  whole  body  of 
the  hay  with  sufficient  rapidity  at  once  to  keep  the  temperature 
within  safe  limits.  In  this  way  partially  cured  hay  can  be  fin- 
ished before  stacking. 

Stacking  Hay. — It  is  almost  impossible  to  give  rules  in  writ- 
ing which  shall  be  of  much  use.  The  best  way  for  a  person  to 
learn  is  to  become  a  pupil  of  a  good  stacker. 

The  foundation  should  be  made  on  boards  or  some  timbers  to 
keep  the  hay  from  absorbing  moisture  from  the  ground.  The 
middle  should  always  bo  kept  highest ;  it  should  be  evenly  trod 
down  on  all  sides ;  the  hay  should  be  pitched  onto  the  stack 


298  FERMENTATION  OF  NEW  MADE  HAY. 

from  different  sides,  or  near  the  center  of  the  stack,  to  prevent 
packing  the  hay  on  one  side  more  than  on  the  other.  The  top 
should  be  finished  with  long,  straight,  coarse  grass  or  sedges. 
In  the  old  country  stacks  are  thatched. 

Fermentation  of  New-Made  Hay. — Concerning  this  point, 
the  following  is  from  the  pen  of  Prof.  F.  H.  Storer  in  the  Rural 
New  Yorker: 

"  There  are  several  facts,  long  familiar  to  practical  men,  which 
show  clearly  that  the  process  of  hay-making  is  something  more 
than  a  mere  drying-out  of  moisture  from  the  grass.  New  hay 
will  '  sweat '  somewhat  in  the  mow  or  stack,  no  matter  how  dry 
it  seemed  to  be  at  the  moment  of  storing ;  and  many  horse-keep- 
ers believe  it  is  not  fit  for  food  for  horses  until  after  this  sweat- 
ing fermentation  has  thoroughly  run  its  course. 

"  Even  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  air  a  good  deal  of 
carbonic  acid,  with  traces  of  hydrogen  and  hydrocarbons,  are 
given  off  during  fermentation. 

"  In  the  beginning  of  an  experiment,  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
was  rapidly  absorbed  and  changed  to  carbonic  acid.  But  even 
after  the  oxygen  had  been  completely  removed  in  this  way  from 
the  confined  volume  of  air  employed  in  the  experiment  there  was 
still  evolution  of  carbonic  acid  from  the  hay,  the  oxygen  for 
which  must  have  come  from  the  grass.  The  atmosphere  sur- 
rounding the  grass  had  but  little  influence  on  tho  volume  or  the 
composition  of  the  grasses  produced.  The  evolution  of  carbonic 
acid  took  place  about  as  rapidly  in  the  artificial  atmosphere  as  it 
did  in  air.  It  was  more  rapid  at  a  temperature  of  97  degrees 
than  at  60  degrees.  Where  corrosive  sublimate  was  used  in  the 
hay,  or  where  the  tube  containing  the  hay  was  exposed  to  steam- 
heat  for  several  hours  and  then  left  to  itself,  no  gases  at  all  were 
evolved ;  hence  the  conclusion  that  the  fermentation  and  the  ev- 
olution of  gas  must  be  dependent  upon  the  presence  in  the  hay 
or  grass  of  low  forms  of  organic  life.  In  confirmation  of  this 


SOME  REQUISITES  FOR  SUCCESS  IN  A  GRASS.  299 

view  the  microscope  always  revealed  numerous  bacteria  in  the 
water  taken  from  tubes  in  which  the  grass  had -fermented. 

c '  It  is  commonly  held  to  be  quite  improper  to  bale  new-made 
hay,  no  matter  how  dry  the  hay  may  be.  The  waste  of  nitrogen 
from  hay  by  long-continued  keeping  has  repeatedly  been  noticed 
before  by  agricultural  chemists.  It  follows  that  although  the 
popular  belief  that  the  new  hay  is  bad  for  animals  may  be  true 
enough,  old  hay  is  not  necessarily  good  hay." 

Saving  Seeds. — Instead  of  placing  all  the  notes  on  this  topic 
under  this  heading  the  reader  will  consult  what  is  said  on  saving 
seeds  of  orchard  grass,  tall  ,oat-grass,  June  grass,  and  red  clover. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

LOOK  THE  WORLD  OVER  FOR  BETTER  GRASSES  AND  IM- 
PROVE THOSE  WE  NOW  HAVE. 

Some  Requisites  for  Success  in  a  Grass. — J.  J.  Thomas,  in 

the  Xcw  York  Agricultural  Report  for  1843,  says: 

' '  Some  of  the  essentials  to  the  success  of  grasses  are — 1st.  They 
should  produce  seed  in  sufficient  abundance,  which  may  be  col- 
lected without  difficulty.  2d.  Where  used  in  mixtures  they 
should  not  exclude  others,  as  is  the  case  with  Poa  pratensis.  3d. 
They  should  not  be  so  tenacious  of  life  as  to  become  troublesome 
weeds  in  rotation,  a."  Trihcum  repens.  4th.  Some  are  valuable 
for  close  pasturage,  which  become  too  hard  and  wiry  for  mead- 
ows, as  the  hard  fescue  grass.  5th.  Some  are  chiefly  adapted  to 
moist  land,  as  red-top  and  ribbon  grass ;  some  for  strong  soils, 
as  Timothy ;  some  for  growing  in  the  shade,  as  Poa  nemorahs, 
and  in  experiments  these  specific  qualities  should  not  be  forgot- 
ten/' 

As  Dr.  Bessey,  of  Nebraska,  puts  it :     "  The  qualities  which 


300  BEST  SOIL  AND  CLIMATE  FOR  GRASSES. 

give  value  to  a  grass  for  pasture  and  hay  are  in  many  particulars 
identical,  although  there  are  many  species  excellent  for  the  one 
use  and  poor  for  the  other.  Both  must  be  nutritious,  so  as  to 
have  any  value  for  feeding  purposes.  They  must,  moreover,  be 
palatable  and  of  inviting  taste,  so  that  they  will  be  freely  eaten 
by  animals,  for  it  is  a  fact  well  known  to  those  who  have  made 
the  subject  one  of  careful  study,  that  there  are  species  which, 
although  highly  nutritious,  are  not  valuable  to  the  stock  grower, 
because  they  are  not  relished,  and  therefore  not  eaten  by  stock. 
It  goes  without  saying,  that  a  grass  which  cattle  will  not  eat  is 
of  no  value  to  the  farmer,  be  it  ever  so  nutritious,  as  shown  by 
chemical  analysis. 

"  Then,  too,  any  grass  which  is  to  find  a  place  on  the  farm 
must  be  easily  propagated,  and  sufficiently  hardy  to  withstand 
the  storms  and  frosts  of  winter,  the  heat  and  drouth  of  summer, 
the  close  cropping  and  the  treading  of  cattle.  It  must  be  able 
to  hold  its  own  against  the  persistent  efforts  of  the  weeds  of  all 
sorts  to  displace  it,  and  after  all  must  not  be  persistent  enough 
to  itself  become  a  weed  upon  grounds  where  it  is  not  wanted. 
Surely  these  are  many  qualities,  and  it  is  a  most  difficult  matter 
to  find  them  combined  in  one  species.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said 
that  for  most  parts  of  the  country  we  have  not  as  yet  succeeded 
in  securing  an  absolutely  perfect  grass." 

The  Best  Soil  and  Climate  for  Pasture  Grasses.— Moist- 
ure in  generous  quantity  is  indispensable  for  good  and  rapid 
growth  of  grass.  An  ample  rainfall  or  artificial  irrigation  evenly 
distributed  will  make  a  good  pasture,  even  on  soils  of  inferior 
quality.  An  average  rainfall  of  thirty  inches  or  more  in  a  tem- 
perate climate  is  necessary  to  secure  favorable  conditions  for  the 
growth  of  grass.  It  has  been  found  that  pastures  on  poor  soils 
in  Wales  and  Ireland  will  improve  under  treatment  that  would 
be  quite  insufficient  on  the  eastern  coast  of  England. 

Soils  which  are  naturally  moist,  rather  flat  and  rich,  are  best 


NEW  GRASSES  FOR  OLD  STATIONS.  301 

adapted  to  the  most  valuable  grasses.  There  the  soil  suffers  less 
from  freezing,  and  is  less  exposed  on  account  of  the  absence  of 
snow. 

New  Grasses  for  New  or  Old  Stations. — Although  the  above 
heading  may  be  "new"  the  subject  is  now  old,  for  as  long  ago 
as  1843,  in  a  prize  essay  for  the  New  York  Agricultural  Society, 
J.  J.  Thomas  said:  "The  great  deficiency  in  the  number  and 
variety  of  our  cultivated  grasses  has  been  long  felt  by  intelligent 
cultivators;  and  a  more  complete  order  of  succession,  afforded 
by  a  mixture  in  pastures,  is  an  important  requisite.  That  among 
the  number  of  nearly  two  hundred  species  indigenous  to  the 
Northern  and  Middle  States,  there  are  some  which  may  prove 
equal  if  not  superior  to  any  we  now  cultivate,  scarcely  admits  a 
doubt.  Some  of  our  native  grasses  have  been  tested  in  Great 
Britain,  and  found  valuable." 

The  late  I.  A.  Lapham,  a  sagacious  botanist  of  Wisconsin,  in 
the  State  Agricultural  Keport  for  1853,  wrote:  "The  import- 
ance of  introducing  new  grasses,  and  efforts  to  improve  those 
already  cultivated,  cannot  be  over-estimated.  It  is  not  at  all 
certain  that  we  have  the  best  kinds,  nor  that  those  we  have  are 
brought  to  the  greatest  degree  of  perfection.  Doubtless  they 
may  be  improved -as  well  as  fruits  and  live  stock." 

A  little  later,  in  1858,  Dr.  Thurber,  in  the  American  Agricul- 
turist, forcibly  expresses  a  similar  view:  "A  dozen  sorts,  prob- 
ably, cover  nineteen'-twentieths  of  all  the  cultivated  meadow 
land  from  Maine  to  Texas.  It  can  hardly  be  supposed  that  so 
limited  a  number  meets,  in  the  best  manner  possible,  all  the 
wants  of  so  great  a  variety  of  soil  and  climate.  This  is  one  of 
the  pressing  wants  of  our  agriculture.  A  single  new  grass,  that 
would  add  but  an  extra  yield  of  a  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre, 
would  add  millions  of  dollars  anuually  to  the  productive  wealth 
of  the  nation." 

J.  R.  Dodge,  in  the  Report  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 


302  NEW  GRASSES  FOR  OLD  STATIONS. 

for  1870,  with  regard  to  the  plant  required,  says :  "  It  must  be 
one  that  will  do  for  the  coarso,  open,  and  airy  soil  of  tho  plains, 
which  is  often  dry  for  a  long  time,  what  Poa  pratensis,  Lin.,. 
has  done  and  is  doing  for  the  States  east  of  the  Missouri  River 
within  the  same  parallels;  one  that  will  not  only  maintain  its 
footing,  but  will  extend  its  area,  and  overcome  competitors. 

"A  strong-growing,  coarse  perennial,  with  rhizomas.,  or  under- 
ground root-stocks,  would  suggest  itself  as  a  suitable  species  for 
trial ;  or  a  perennial  producing  an  abundance  of  radical  leaves, 
and  of  early  growth,  that  would  cover  the  soil  and  prevent  the 
growth  of  annuals. '  Oi  thL  class  he  suggests :  Elymus  Cana- 
densis,  L.,  Elymus  Virginicus,  L.,  Elymus  Sibiricus,  Elymus  mol- 
lis,  Trin.,  Sporobolus  Jteterolepis,  Gray,  Ceratocliloa  grandifloray 
Hook. 

Of  foreign  species  he  thinks  the  mosu  promising  is  Festuca 
pratensis,  Iluds. 

Soon  after  beginning  to  give  special  attention  to  the  agricul- 
tural grasses,  tho  writer  in  a  lecture  to  tho  Northwestern  Dairy- 
men's Association  in  1872,  advised  hunting  up  new  grasses  in 
Mexico,  Europe,  South  America  and  Australia,  Japan  and  Cali- 
fornia. Depend  upon  it  there  are  treasures  yet  undiscovered  in 
some  of  those  distant  lands.  I  suggested  that,  likely,  grasses 
from  a  dry  climate  will  thrive  better  than  those  from  England 
or  other  moist  climates.  Truly  we  may  say  that  very  little  wog- 
ress  has  been  made  in  this  subject  in  forty  years. 

In  the  extensive  unwooded  regions  west  of  the  Mississippi  the 
native  grasses  afford  much  pastures;  but  many  of  them  start 
very  late  in  spring,  and  stop  growing  early  in  autumn.  They  do 
not  completely  occupy  the  ground ;  they  are  easily  stamped  out 
by  the  hoofs  of  cattle  and  sheep.  Some  of  the  tamo  grasses  will 
thrive  better,  and  afford  much  more  pasture.  Especially  is  thero 
great  need  of  some  forage  plants  better  adapted  to  the  Southern 
States,  and  the  dryer  portions  of  all  the  United  States. 


NEW  GRASSES  FOR  OLD  STATIONS.  303 

The  sedges  (Cyperacece)  are  mostly  found  on  marsnes,  but  a 
few  grow  on  rather  dry  ground.  Although  extensively  past- 
ured, cut  and  cured  for  hay  in  new  countries,  they  have  been 
quite  uniformly  condemned  as  utterly  unworthy  of  cultivation. 
They  are  nearly  always  much  past  their  prime  when  cut  for  hay. 
They  are  better  when  cured  early.  The  writer  thinks  it  not  un- 
likely that  some  of  these  sedges  may  prove  valuable  in  certain 
localities.  The  majority  of  sedges  appear  in  limited  quantity 
often  mixed  with  others  which  grow  abundantly.  Some  experi- 
ments might  very  profitably  be  made  on  the  sedges  with  refer- 
ence to  their  value  for  pasture  or  hay. 

On  this  topic  I  glean  the  following  from  the  Country  Gentle- 
man of  January,  1886,  contributed  by  my  colleague,  Prof.  L.  II. 
Bailey :  f 'At  present  there  are  only  three  species,  so  far  as 
known,  which  possess  any  decided  merits.  One  is  a  native  of 
Thibet,  affording  fair  grazing  when  grasses  fail.  Another  is  the 
sand  carex  of  Europe  (Carex  arenaria)  which  is  largely  grown 
along  exposed  sea  shores  to  hold  the  sand.  The  third  spocies 
occurs  along  the  Columbia  River,  where  it  furnishes  a  valuable 
hay  and  pasture,  and  is  known  as  the  hay  carex.  It  has  been 
received  from  several  reliable  sources.  It  grows  rapidly  in  the 
early  spring,  and  matures  its  fruit  or  seeds  just  before  the  annual 
rise  of  the  rivers  cover  it.  As  soon  as  the  water  recedes  it  springs 
up  again,  but  does  not  fruit,  this  time  yielding  an  excellent  hay. 
Hundreds  of  tons  are  cut  from  this  species  alone. 

"  Specialists  have  studied  this  plant  quite  carefully,  and  it  has 
been  referred  to  no  less  than  five  distinct  species.  It  is  probably 
the  same  as  a  Scandinavian  species  (Carex  acuta  var.  prolixa) 
although  that  plant  is  not  known  to  possess  any  economic  value." 

The  following  is  from  Dr.  0.  E.  Bessey,  of  Nebraska:  "For 
many  years  it  has  been  a  favorite  subject  of  investigation  with 
me  to  attempt  to  determine  whether  any  of  our  native  grasses 
were  worthy  of  being  brought  under  cultivation.  In  this  inves- 


304  NEW    GRASSES   FOR  OLD  STATIONS. 

tigation  I  have  met  with  some  odd  experiences.  I  have  as  a  rule 
found  the  opinion  general  that  the  wild  grasses  furnished  valu- 
able pasture  and  hay,  and  still,  with  few  exceptions,  it  has  been 
very  nearly  impossible  to  obtain  exact  data  as  to  what  kind  of 
wild  grasses  were  best,  and  what  kinds  were  of  most  value  for 
hay  or  pasture.  Moreover,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  there  are  as 
yet  scarcely  any  common  names  for  these  valuable  wild  grasses, 
so  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  speak  intelligently  of  them 
without  having  recourse  to  their  scientific  names. 

"  It  is  not  to  be  reasonably  questioned  but  that  there  may  oe 
as  valuable  wild  grasses  which  have  not  yet  been  brought  under 
cultivation,  as  there  are  already  grown  on  our  farms.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  ever)'  grass  which  we  now  grow  was  once 
but  a  wild  grass  in  some  part  of  the  world,  and  that  by  bringing 
them  under  cultivation  we  have  in  every  case  increased  their 
valuable  qualities,  as  well  as  productiveness." 

In  Science,  vol.  1,  1883,  Prof.  N.  S.  Shaler,  referring  to  this 
subject,  says:  "  It  seems  possible  to  improve  this  pasture  by 
the  introduction  of  other  forage  plants  indigenous  to  regions 
having  something  like  the  same  climate.  The  regions  likely  to 
furnish  plants  calculated  to  nourish  in  a  region  of  low  rainfall 
include  a  large  part  of  the  earth's  surface.  Those  that  would 
succeed  in  Dakota  are  not  likely  to  do  well  in  Texas  or  Arizona. 
For  the  northern  region,  the  uplands  of  northern  Asia  or  Pata- 
gonia are  the  most  promising  fields  of  search ;  while  for  the  mid- 
dle and  southern  fields,  the  valley  of  the  La  Plata,  southern 
Africa,  Australia,  and  the  Algerian  district  may  be  looked  to 
for  suitable  species."  He  recommends  three  experiment  sta- 
tions,— one  in  Nebraska,  one  in  Texas,  and  one  in  Arizona. 

In  this  connection,  when  we  remember  that  exotic  plants  often 
thrive  better  than  natives,  we  see  what  a  vast  field  lies  ready  for 
experimenting  with  the  grasses.  As  we  have  seen,  private  en- 
terprise has  done  little.  Grasses  look  much  alike  to  all  who 


IMPROVING   BY   SELECTION.  305 

have  not  closely  studied  them,  so  that  farmers  are  not  likely  to 
make  experiments.  This  is  a  strong  reason  why  the  state  and 
national  governments  should  assist  agriculture  in  an  undertaking 
which  seems  so  fruitful  of  good  results  within  a  short  time,  at 
so  trifling  an  expense.  Expeditions  are  sent  at  great  expense  to 
explore  Polar  seas,  with  a  view  to  slightly  extend  our  knowledge 
of  a  barren  portion  of  the  earth's  surface.  Large  sums  are  em- 
ployed to  fit  up  in  magnificent  style,  and  send  to  the  remotest 
parts  of  the  earth,  expeditions  to  spend  a  few  minutes  in  observ- 
ing an  eclipse  or  a  transit  of  Venus.  Would  the  sending  of  com- 
petent persons  around  the  earth  in  search  of  better  grasses  be  an 
undertaking  less  praiseworthy? 

Improving  by  Selection. — The  good  effects  of  a  change  of 
seed  is  in  many  cases  already  enjoyed  in  the  case  of  grasses  and 
clovers,  as  most  farmers  occasionally  purchase  their  seed.  A 
change  of  seed  means  a  change  of  soil  and  surroundings;  and 
these  are  likely  to  benefit  the  plants. 

Probably  every  reader  believes  that  the  following  from  Mas- 
ter's Plant  Life  is  true: 

"  In  a  wheat  field  or  bean  crop  no  two  plants  are  exactly  alike; 
one  is  more  robust  than  another,  one  tillers  more  than  the  rest, 
the  ears  of  one  are  plumper  and  fuller,  this  one  grows  earlier  or 
later  in  spring,  is  therefore  hardier  or  more  tender,  as  the  case 
may  be.  The  careful  observer  notes  these  points,  and  instead  of 
passing  them  over  endeavors  to  turn  them  to  account  by  select- 
ing the  plant  which  shows  a  tendency  to  vary,  taking  seed  from 
it  and  growing  that  seed  another  season."  The  best  is  selected, 
the  process  continued. 

The  shrewdest  horticulturists  are  continually  and  successfully 
following  this  plan.  To  a  limited  degree  the  general  farmer  does 
the  same  thing.  By  this  process,  Major  Hallett  in  five  years 
caused  the  length  of  the  ears  of  wheat  to  double,  their  contents 
to  nearly  treble,  and  their  tillering  power  to  increase  five  fold. 
39 


306  IMPROVING   BY   CROSS-FERTILIZATION. 

To  improve  wheat,  the  following  plan  is  worth  considering: 
Select  a  field  where  wheat  will  yield  well,  and  see  that  every- 
thing is  well  done  to  make  it  prosper.  When  about  ripe,  pass 
through  the  best  portion  of  the  field  and  select  some  of  the  best 
spikes  of  wheat  from  the  best  stools.  Plant  these  for  the  next 
crop,  in  the  best  land,  and  give  them  the  best  of  care,  continu- 
ing the  process.  This  is  far  ahead  of  the  common  practice,  which 
is  to  separate  the  plumpest  kernels  from  a  lot  of  grain  by  means 
of  the  fanning  mill.  Some  of  the  selected  kernels  most  likely 
came  from  short  spikes  of  small  stools. 

Precisely  the  same  method  here  suggested  for  improving  wheat 
can  be  applied  to  the  improvement  of  orchard  grass,  Timothy, 
June  grass,  meadow  fox-tail,  any  of  the  fescues  or  the  clovers. 
Indeed,  across  the  Atlantic  something  has  already  been  done  in 
this  direction,  and  with  excellent  results.  The  time  will  doubt- 
less come  when  farmers  will  take  some  care  in  reference  to  breed- 
ing and  selection  of  grass  seeds,  as  they  now  do  in  reference  to 
their  domestic  animals. 

To  procure  seed  corn,  plant  a  piece  by  itself,  give  plenty  of 
room  for  each  stalk ;  enrich  the  soil  and  give  excellent  cultiva- 
tion. Kemove  all  poor  stalks  before  flowering  that  they  may 
not  fertilize  any  ears.  Select  the  best  of  these  upper  ears  for 
seed.  Florists  follow  the  same  plan  by  removing  all  poor  or 
undesirable  specimens  before  flowering. 

Improving  by  Cross-Fertilization  of  the  Flowers.— Af- 
ter reading  the  former  paragraphs  on  fertilization,  with  speci- 
mens in  hand,  the  reader  will  have  little  difficulty  in  under- 
standing how  to  cross  some  of  the  larger  grasses.  In  all  cases, 
to  insure  a  cross,  the  young  anthers  must  be  removed  before 
they  shed  pollen.  Spread  apart  the  palet  and  flowering  glume, 
and  carefully  remove  all  the  anthers.  At  the  same  time,  an 
anther  a  little  older  from  another  variety  may  be  inserted  in 
place  of  the  three  removed.  The  pollen  of  the  anther  inserted 


IMPROVING  BY  CROSS-FERTILIZATION.  307 

'will  keep,  and  is  ready  to  fertilize  the  stigmas  as  they  mature. 
All  the  flowers  of  a  spike  may  be  operated  on,  or  only  part  of  a 
spike,  and  the  -rest  cut  off.  The  culm  will  be  marked  so  as  to 
secure  the  grain  when  it  ripens. 

Professor  A.  E.  Blount,  of  Colorado,  is  an  enthusiast  in  cross- 
ing cereals,  and  has  met  with  excellent  success  in  obtaining  good 
new  varieties.  Hear  him :  "All  the  cereals  are  susceptible  of 
great  improvement.  They  can  be  made  to  produce  results,  here- 
tofore unrealized,  at  which  some  of  the  oldest  scientific  farmers 
are  amazed.  The  farmer  can  breed  up  his  grain  as  he  does  his 
stock.  If  it  is  deficient  in  any  one  element,  he  can  supply  that 
deficiency.  Should  his  wheat,  for  instance,  be  too  soft,  too 
starchy,  or  have  weak  straw,  he  can,  by  crossing  it  upon  other 
harder,  more  glutinous  and  stiff  strawed  kinds,  make  wheats  to 
suit  his  soil,  climate  and  his  miller.  If  his  corn  does  not  suit 
him,  if  it  is  too  long-lived,  with  too  large  cobs,  too  coarse  fod- 
der, too  inferior  stalks,  too  high,  low,  large  or  small,  he  can  se- 
lect, cross  and  interbreed  until  only  quantity,  form,  and  fineness 
are  obtained.  The  experimenter  must  be  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  plants  before  he  can  succeed  in  improving  them  by  se- 
lection. If  he  be  a  wise  man,  and  understand  his  business,  he 
does  not  always  take  the  largest  ear  or  the  largest  spike.  The 
largest  are  by  no  means  always  the  best." 

Many  careful  experiments  have  been  made  by  Darwin  and 
others  proving  conclusively  that  the  chances  are  largely  in  favor 
of  great  improvements,  if  the  flowers  are  cross  fertilized. 

Tlie  crossing  of  closely  related  plants  is  generally  an  improve- 
ment over  self-fertilization;  but  crossing  with  foreign  stocks  of 
the  same  variety  is  a  far  greater  improvement. 

The  reader  may  ask,  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "  crossing 
with  foreign  stock."  The  following  experiment  will  illustrate 
it :  Select  two  lots  of  seed  corn  which  are  essentially  alike  in  all 
o-espects.  One  should  have  been  grown,  at  least,  for  five  years 


308  IMPROVING  BY  CROSS-FERTILIZATION. 

in  one  neighborhood,  and  the  other  in  another  neighborhood 
fifty  or  more  miles  distant.  In  alternate  rows  plant  'the  kernels 
taken  from  one  or  two  ears  of  each  lot.  Before  flowering  thin 
out  all  poor  stalks.  As  soon  as  the  tassels  begin  to  show  them- 
selves in  all  the  rows  of  one  lot,  pull  them  out,  that  all  kernels 
on  the  ears  of  those  rows  may  certainly  be  crossed  by  pollen  from 
the  other  rows.  Save  and  sow  the  seeds  thus  crossed  and  an  in- 
creased yield  may  be  expected  the  next  year.  The  benefits  of 
such  crossing  will  gradually  diminish  and  probably  disappear  in 
a  few  years.  All  species  which  freely  intercross  by  the  aid  of 
insects  or  the  wind  can  be  crossed  as  follows:  Procure  a  quan- 
tity of  seed  grown  for  some  years  at  some  distance  away  and  mix 
with  seed  kept  and  raised  for  some  time  at  the  place  where  the 
experiment  is  to  be  tested.  "  The  two  stocks  will  intercross, 
with  a  thorough  blending  of  their  whole  organizations,  and  with 
no  loss  of  purity  to  the  variety ;  and  this  will  yield  far  more  fa- 
vorable results  than  a  mere  exchange  of  seeds." — (Darwin). 

In  brief,  mix  seeds  of  the  same  variety  grown  in  different  lo- 
calities to  grow  your  seed. 

The  late  Charles  Darwin  in  his  book  on  The  Effects  of  Cross 
and  Self -Fertilization  of  Plants  records  the  results  of  experi- 
ments made  on  fifty-seven  species  of  fifty-two  different  genera  of 
thirty  families.  These  experiments  were  continued  and  re- 
peated for  ten  years.  He  generally  found  the  plants  raised  from 
seed  crossed  with  foreign  stock  were  the  most  vigorous,  the 
largest,  the  hardiest,  matured  the  earliest,  yielded  the  most 
seed,  and  such  seeds  were  the  most  certain  to  germinate  and  ger- 
minate soonest. 

In  1877  the  writer  began  some  experiments  of  this  kind  with 
Indian  corn  and  with  beans,  and  has  since  made  others.  The 
advantage  shown  by  crossing  corn  with  foreign  stock  was  as  151 
exceeds  100,  and  in  the  case  of  black  wax-beans  it  was  as  236- 
exceeds  100.  Other  experiments  have  always  shown  a  large  gain 


GRASSES  FOR  THE  LAWN.  309 

in  favor  of  plants  raised  from  seed  obtained  in  the  above  man- 
ner. • 

In  reviewing  Darwin's  book,  the  Gardener's  Chronicle  said: 
"  It  is  certain  that  these  practical  results  will  be  a  long  time 
filtering  into  the  minds  of  those  who  will  eventually  profit  most 
by  them." 

The  results,  so  far,  fully  accord  with  the  prophetic  statement 
above  quoted ;  the  people  are  slow,  very  slow,  to  profit  by  the 
experiments. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

GRASSES  FOR  THE  LAWN,  THE  GARDEN,  AND  FOR  DECORATION. 

The  Lawn. — "  Grass  is  the  most  lowly,  the  simplest,  and  the 
loveliest  element  to  be  used  in  the  adornment  of  home.  A 
smooth,  closely  shaven  surface  of  grass  is  by  far  the  most  essen- 
tial element  of  beauty  on  the  grounds  of  a  suburban  home." — 
(F.  J.  Scott.) 

"  It  would  be  a  great  gain  to  horticulture  if  ten  out  of  every 
twelve  ' flowerbeds'  in  Europe  were  blotted  out  with  fresh  green 
grass." — (Robinson's  Parks  of  Paris.) 

"A  lawn  is  the  ground  work  of  a  landscape-garden." — (H.  W. 
Sargent.) 

Listen  to  A.  J.  Downing :  "  The  great  elements  of  landscape 
gardening  are  trees  and  grass.  For  this  purpose  we  do  not  look 
upon  grass  with  the  eyes  of  the  farmer  who  raises  three  tons  to 
the  acre.  "We  have  no  patience  with  the  tall  and  gigantic  fodder, 
by  this  name,  that  grows  in  the  fertile  bottoms  of  the  West,  so 
tall  that  the  largest  Durham  is  lost  to  view  while  walking  through 
it.  No,  we  love  the  soft  turf  which  is  thrown  like  a  smooth, 
natural  carpet  over  the  swelling  outline  of  the  smiling  earth. 


310  GRASSES   FOR  THE   LAWN. 

"  Fine  lawns  are  possible  in  all  the  northern  half  of  the  Union, 
although  an  American  summer  does  not,  like  that  of  Britain, 
ever  moist  and  humid,  naturally  favor  the  condition  of  fine 
lawns.  The  necessary  conditions  for  a  good  lawn  are  deep  soil, 
the  proper  kinds  of  grasses,  and  frequent  mowing.  Let  the 
whole  area  to  be  laid  down  be  thoroughly  moved  and  broken  up 
two  feet  deep.  Let  the  surface  be  raked  smooth  and  entirely 
cleared  of  even  the  smallest  stone.  The  object  of  a  lawn  is  not 
to  obtain  a  heavy  crop  of  hay,  but  simply  to  maintain  perpetual 
verdure.  Rich  soil  would  defeat  our  object  by  causing  a  rank 
growth  and  coarse  stalks,  when  we  wish  a  short  growth  and  soft 
herbage.  Let  the  soil,  therefore,  be  good,  but  not  rich;  depth, 
and  the  power  of  retaining  moisture,  are  the  truly  needful  quali- 
ties. 

"  Now  for  the  sowing ;  and  here  a  farmer  would  advise  you  to 
'seed  down  with  oats,'  or  some  such  established  agricultural 
precept.  Do  not  listen  to  him  for  a  moment.  Do  not  suppose 
you  are  going  to  assist  a  weak  growing  plant  by  sowing  along 
with  it  a  coarser  growing  one  to  starve  it.'' 

Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  learning  to  recognize  the  seeds,  the 
purchaser  is  usually  at  the  mercy  of  the  dealer,  whose  interest  it 
is  to  enshroud  in  mystery  the  whole  subject  of  grasses  for  the 
lawn. 

Many  of  the  leading  seedsmen  of  our  country  are  advertising 
extensively  and  appear  to  be  selling  large  quantities  of  "mix- 
tures "  of  lawn  grass  seeds  for  which  there  is  quite  a  variety  of 
attractive  names. 

The  writer  has  frequently  examined  these  mixtures  and  has 
watched  the  success  of  several  of  them  in  various  portions  of  the 
Northern  States.  For  the  benefit  of  my  readers  I  present  the 
results  of  a  careful  "analysis"  of  some  samples  of  seeds  of 
mixed  lawn  grass. 

In  former  years,  the  vitality  of  the  rarer  grass  seeds  has  uni- 


GRASSES  FOR  THE  LAWN.  311 

versally  been  found  to  be  very  low,  while  the  germinating  power 
of  the  common  sorts,  such  as  are  raised  in  this  and  neighboring 
States,  has  been  satisfactory. 

CHICAGO  PARKS  MIXTUEE. 

Sold  by Chicago,  Illinois. 

The  table  shows  the  relative  proportion  of  the  different  kinds 
of  seeds  found : 
June  Grass,  or  Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  Poa  pratensis,  L. ,  in  the  chalf     1740 

White  Clover,  Trifolium  repens,  L. ,  clean 90 

Sweet  Vernal,  AntJwxanthum  odoratum,  L. ,  in  chaff 31 

Perennial  Rye  Grass,  Lolium  perenne,  L. ,  in  chaff - 85 

Orchard  Grass,  Cock's  Foot,  Dactylis  glomerata,  L.,  in  chaff 30 

Red  Top,  Brown  or  Creeping  Bent,  Agrostis,  in  chaff 16 

Timothy,  Plileum  pratense,  L. ,  clean 6 

Mixed  and  containing  traces  of  .the  following 15 

Velvet  Grass,  Holcus  lanatus,  L. ,  in  chaff  (a  weed). 

Sedge,  Carex  (worthless). 

(Narrow?)  Dock,  Rumex  (a  weed). 

Panic  Grass,  Panicum  (worthless). 

duckweed,  Stellaria  (a  weed). 

This  mixture  is  advertised  as  especially  adapted  to  the  inland 
and  western  States,  and  costs  25  cents  per  quart  or  $4.00  per 
bushel. 

As  will  be  seen,  it  consists  mainly  of  June  grass,  which  the 
same  house  offers  at  $1.50  per  bushel;  and  the  latter,  if  pure 
and  sowed  alone,  is  far  preferable  for  a  lawn  to  this  mixture. 
Besides  those  marked  weeds,  the  others  which  are  most  objec- 
tionable are  orchard  grass,  a  coarse,  bunchy  grass,  Timothy, 
which  is  too  coarse  and  short  lived,  perennial  rye  grass,  which 
just  takes  the  cream  of  the  soil  for  a  few  years  and  then  dies  out. 

FINE    MIXED    LAWN    GRASS. 

Sold  in  lidlc  by  —  -  Detroit,  Mich. 

Table  showing  the  proportions : 

June  Grass,  or  Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  Poa  pratensis,  L.,  in  chaff...  827 
Perennial  Rye  Grass,  Lolium  perenne,  L. ,  in  chaff 470 


312  GRASSES  FOR  THE  LAWN. 

Timothy,  Phleum  pratense,  L.,  clean 340 

White  Clover,  Trifolium  pratense,  L.,  clean 230 

Red  Top,  Brown  or  Creeping  Bent,  Agrostis,  in  chaff 217 

Mixed  and  containing  traces  of  the  following - --  15 

Velvet  Grass,  Holcus  lanatus,  L. ,  in  chaff  (a  weed). 

Orchard  Grass,  Cock's  Foot,  Dactylis  glomerata,  L.,  in  chaff. 

Chess,  Bromus,  some  species  (a  weed). 

Crowfoot,  Ranunculus  bulbosus  (a  weed). 

Dock,  Rumex  (a  weed). 

Lance-leaved  Plantain,  Plantago  lanceolata,  L.,  (a  weed). 

Shepherd's  Purse,  Capsella  Bursa-pastoris,  Moanch  (a  weed). 

This  mixture  is  sold  at  50  cents  per  pound,  or  $4  per  bushel, 
and  is  not  so  good  as  the  Chicago  parks  mixture  noticed  above, 
because  it  contains  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  June  grass  and 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  perennial  rye  grass  and  Timothy. 

FLINT'S  LAWN  GRASS. 

Sold  by Detroit,  Mich. 

Table  showing  the  proportions : 

Perennial  Rye  Grass,  Lolium  perenne,  L. ,  in  chaff -- 526 

Sheep's  Fescue  and  Hard  Fescue,  seeds  much  alike,  Festuca  ovina 

and  var.  duriuscula,  L. 295 

June  Grass,  or  Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  Poa  pratensis*  I*,  in  chaff 255 

White  Clover,  Trifolium  repens,  L.,  clean 227 

Bed  or  Mammoth  Clover,  Trifolium  pratense  or  medium,  L.,  clean..  130 

Timothy,  Phleum  pratense,  L. ,  clean 105 

Meadow  Foxtail,  Alopecurus  pratensis,  L. ,  in  chaff 103 

Italian  Rye  Grass,  Lolium  perenne,  var.  Italicum,  in  chaff- -  47 

Sweet  Vernal,  Anthoxanthum  odoratum,  L. ,  in  chaff - 35 

Hair  Grass,  Aira  flexuosa,  L. ,  in  chaff  (a  weed). 25 

Chaff 80 

Mixed  seeds  containing  traces  of  the  following * .  30 

Chess,  Bromus  (a  weed). 

Fescue  (species  ?) 

Velvet  Grass  (a  weed). 

Self  Heal,  Brunella  (a  weed). 

jSorrel,  Rumex  (a  weed). 


GRASSES    FOR  THE    LAWN.  313 

Ribbed  Grass   Plant  ago  lanceolota   L.    (a  weed). 

Chick  weed  (a  weed). 

Nonesuch,  Medicago  lupulina   I. 

A  sedge,  Carex. 

Two  or  three  others  not  recognized. 

This  mixture  is  sold  at per  quart  or  per  bushel. 

In  addition  to  the  objections  made  to  the  two  former  mixtures 
are  the  following : 

Sheep's  fescue  and  hard  fescue  grow  in  tufts  or  bunches  and 
will  not  produce  a  lawn  of  even  appearance.  The  red  or  .mam- 
moth clover  will  also  produce  a  coarse  patchy  lawn,  and  the 
former  will  die  out  in  two  or  three  years.  Italian  rye  grass  will 
kill  out  the  first  winter.  Hair  grass  is  a  weed  substituted  for 
crested  dog's  tail,  which  is  a  feeble  grass  of  no  value  in  this 
country. 

FIKE    MIXED    LAWK   GRASS. 

Sold  by Rochester,  New  York. 

Table  showing  the  proportions : 

June  Grass,  Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  Poa  pretensis,  L.,  in  chaff 995 

Perennial  Rye  Grass,  Lolium  pwenne,  L. ,  in  chaff 373 

Orchard  Grass,  Cock's  Foot,  Dactylis  glomerata,  L.,  in  chaff 327 

Red  Top,  Brown  or  Creeping  Bent.  Agrostis,  in  chaff 212 

Velvet  Grass,  Holcus  lanatus,  L.,  in  chaff  (a  weed) 22 

Jtfixed  and  containing  traces  of  the  following  : 

Chess,  Bromus,  Sp.  (?)  (a  weed). 

Lance-leaved  Plantain,  Ribbed  Grass,  Plantago  lanceolate,  L.  (a  weed). 

Dock  or  Sorrel,  Rumex  (a  weed). 

White  Clover,  Trifolium  repens,  L. 

Timothy,  Phleum  pratense,  L. 

Crowfoot,  Ranunculus  Imlbosua,  L.  (?)  (a  weed). 

Shepherd's  Purse,  Capsella  Bursa-pastoris,  Moench  (a  weed). 

The  above  is  sold  at  $4  per  bushel. 

For  objections  to  aome  of  these  ingredients  consult  the  com- 
ments inserted  in  connection  with  the  former  mixtures. 
40 


314  GRASSES  FOR  THE  LAWN. 

Sold  in  bulk  by New  York. 

Table  showing  the  proportions : 

June  Grass,  or  Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  Poa  prcftensis,  L.,  in  chaff 648 

Red  Top,  Brown  or  Creeping  Bent,  Agrostis. 528 

WhiteClover,  Trifolium  repens  L. ,  clean 158 

Timothy,  Phleum  pratense,  L.,  clean 38 

Ergot  of  Agrostis,  or  Red  Top,  (infested  with  fungus) 10 

Mixed  and  containing  traces  of  the  following: 

Eggs  of  insects. 

Dung  of  insects. 

Dead  insects. 

Panic  Grass,  Panieum  (a  weed). 

Chick  weed. 

Shepherd's  Purse,  Capsella  Bursa-^pastoris,  Moench  (a  weed). 

Dock,  Rumex  (a  weed). 

Orchard  Grass  or  Cock's  Foot,  Dactylis  glomerata,  L. 

Eleocharis,  a  rush  or  grass-like  plant  (a  weed). 

Round  Leaved  Mallow,  Malva  rotundifolia.  L.  (a  weed). 

This  is  sold  for  $5  per  bushel,  and  is  a  good  mixture,  omitting 
the  seed  of  Timothy  and  the  weeds.  The  house  claims  to  have 
have  sold  70,000  packages  in  1885.  The  same  house  offers  June 
grass  for  $2.25,  and  Bent  grass  for  £4  per  bushel. 

THE  "HENDERSON"  LAWN  GRASS  SEED. 
Sold  by  —      New  York. 

Table  showing  the  proportions : 

Brown  or  Creeping  Bent  or  Red  Top,  Agrostis,  in  chaff 880 

June  Grass  or  Kentucky  Blue  Grass,  Poa  pratensis,  L.,  in  chaff 715 

White  Clover,  Trifolium  repens,  L. ,  clean 1 20  - 

Sheep's  or  Hard  Fescue,  Festuca  ovina  or  var.  duriuscula,  L. ,  in  chaff      110 

Perennial  Rye  Grass,  Lolium  peren  ne,  L. ,  in  chaff 95 

Sweet  Vernal,  Anthoxanthum  odoratum,  L.,  var.  PuelH,  in  chaff--         17 
Timothy,  Phleum  pratense,  L.,  clean _ 10 

A  few  seeds  of  Chickweed,  some  Panieum,  Mallow,  Malva  rotundifolia, 
L.,  (a  weed),  Ergot,  some  other  weeds  not  recognized. 

This  is  much  like  the  Central  Park  lawn  grass  previously  no- 
ticed. This  one  contains  some  seeds  of  small  fescues  apparently 


GRASSES  FOR  THE  LAWN.  815 

mixed,  a  little  perennial  rye  grass,  which  is  no  benefit  to  it,  and 
a  very  little  Timothy,  which  would  be  better  to  omit,  and  a 
small  amount  of  sweet  vernal,  which  apparently  is  the  annual 
variety  and  of  no  value.  The  three  leading  ingredients  are  the 
June  grass,  bent  grass,  and  white  clover. 

It  was  the  freest  from  weeds  of  any  mixture  examined.  It  is 
sold  for  25  cents  per  quart  or  $5.50  per  bushel.  The  same  house 
sells  June  grass  for  $2.25  per  bushel,  bent  grass  for  $4.00  per 
bushel,  white  clover  for  40  cents  per  pound. 

The  preceding  tables  and  the  remarks  below  each  should  be 
studied  in  connection  with  what  follows. 

At  the  Agricultural  College,  numerous  plats  in  various  sea- 
sons and  soils,  mixed  and  separate,  have  been  tried,  and  those 
grasses  of  most  value  are  June  grass  and  a  small  red  top.  White 
clover  often  thrives  well  with  these,  but  it  varies  much  with  the 
change  of  seasons.  Sod  taken  from  a  rich  old  pasture  or  the 
roadside  usually  makes  excellent  lawn  as  soon  as  laid,  but  it  is 
too  expensive  for  a  large  plat.  The  main  grasses  making  such  a 
turf  are  those  last  mentioned,  June  grass  and  red  top,  with  per- 
haps some  white  clover. 

In  making  a  lawn  too  little  stress  is  usually  placed  on  thor- 
ough trenching  or  subsoiling  and  enriching  the  land.  The  sur- 
face should  be  harrowed  and  hand-raked  till  it  is  in  the  finest 
condition. 

With  the  writer's  experience,  having  tested  for  some  years 
over  two  hundred  kinds  of  grasses  and  clovers,  both  native  and 
foreign,  for  Michigan  and  places  with  similar  climates,  he  would 
sow  about  two  bushels  of  seeds  (in  the  chaff)  of  June  grass,  Poa 
pratensis,  L..  and  two  bushels  of  some  small  bent  grass,  known 
as  Rhode  Island  Bent,  Brown  Bent,  or  Creeping  Bent,  or  as  red 
top.  The  latter  grasses  vary  much  and  are  usually  much  mixed, 
as  they  wero  in  all  the  samples  above  examined, 

A  few  ounces  of  white  clover  may  be  added,  if  the  owner  pre- 


316  GRASSES  FOR  THE   LAWN 

fers,  but  it  is  by  no  means  very  important.  Each  one  of  these 
two  or  three  kinds  of  plants  will  appear  to  cover  the  ground  all 
over,  so  it  will  look  uniform. 

To  the  farmer  who  is  accustomed  to  sow  coarse  seeds  for  a 
meadow  or  pasture  the  above  quantity  of  seeds  appears  to  be 
enormous.  But  the  aim  is  to  secure  many  very  fine  stalks  in- 
stead of  a  few  large  coarse  ones. 

If  a  little  sweet  vernal  and  a  little  perennial  rye  grass  are  used 
a  careful  observer,  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  will  see  that 
the  lawn  looks  "patchy."  Especially  in  early  spring,  or  in 
very  dry  weather,  some  of  these  and  others  often  recommended, 
will  grow  faster  than  the  rest  and  assume  different  shades  of 
green.  For  a  lawn  never  use  any  Timothy,  orchard  grass,  tall 
oat  grass,  red  clover,  meadow  fescue  or  other  large  grass  or  clo- 
ver, but  only  the  finest  perennial  grasses  or  clovers.  Sow  the 
seeds  in  September  or  in  March  or  April,  without  any  "  sprink- 
ling "  of  oats  or  wheat,  and  as  soon  as  the  grasses  get  up  a  little 
and  the  straggling  weeds  get  up  still  higher,  mow  them,  and 
keep  mowing  every  week  or  two  all  summer. 

Avoid  purchasing  mixtures  advertised  in  seed  catalogues,  as  it 
will  be  much  cheaper  and  safer  to  buy  each  sort  separately,  and 
only  one  or  two  or  three  sorts  are  desirable.  The  rarer  grasses 
are  mostly  imported,  and  up  to  the  present  time,  as  was  said, 
have  been  found  to  possess  very  low  vitality;  besides,  bad  for- 
eign weeds  are  very  commonly  mixed  with  these  grass  seeds. 
There  are  good  reasons,  then,  for  buying  common  sorts,  and,  if 
possible,  those  raised  and  cleaned  in  a  careful  manner. 

James  Hunter,  of  England,  in  his  manual  of  grasses,  says : 
"  Careful  analysis  of  the  mixed  lawn  grass  seeds  sold  by  some  large 
seed  houses  at  high  prices  prove  them  to  consist  of  from  40  to  50 
per  cent,  of  rye  grass,  whereas  not  a  single  seed  of  rye  grass 
should  be  included  in  any  mixture  for  producing  a  lawn." 

The  Koyal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  employs  a  con- 


ORNAMENTAL  GRASSES.  317 

suiting  botanist,  Wm.  Caruthers,  who,  for  small  fees,  tests  the 
seeds  for  its  members.  He  finds  it  best  to  avoid  purchasing 
mixtures  for  lawn,  pasture  or  meadow. 

The  editor  of  the  Gardner's  Monthly  echoes  the  sentiments  of 
our  best  judges  in  this  matter  when  he  advises  for  lawn  to  sow 
June  grass  or  red  top  either  one  alone  or  both  mixed. 

E.  S.  Carman,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Rural  New  Yorker, 
and  manager  of  a  fine  homestead  and  an  experimental  farm, 
writes:  "Thirteen  years  ago  we  sowed  on  different  parts  of  an 
acre  of  lawn  blue  grass,  red  top,  Rhode  Island  bent  and  the 
'  lawn  mixtures '  sold  by  seedsmen.  To-day  the  red  top  presents 
the  finest  and  brightest  appearance,  while  the  lawn  mixture ' 
portion  has  since  been  re -sown  with  red  top  and  blue  grass." 

In  conclusion,  if  not  so .  already,  make  the  soil  strong,  drain 
thoroughly,  deeply  pulverize,  harrow  and  hand-rake  the  surface 
carefully.  In  early  spring,  or  in  early  autumn  if  not  dry,  sow, 
without  any  wheat  or  oats,  three  or  four  bushels  to  the  acre  of 
June  grass  or  red  top,  either  one  or  a  mixture  of  both  in  any 
proportion. 

Ornamental  Grasses.— Although  grasses  rank  among  the 
lowest  of  the  flowering  plants,  and  very  few  have  anything  like 
gaily  colored  blossoms,  yet  no  order  possesses  plants  which  sur- 
pass some  of  them  in  grace  and  elegance.  For  beauty,  grasses 
rely  mainly  upon  their  forms  and  pleasing  shades  of  green  color. 
A  few  have  brilliant  colored  anthers,  or  their  spikelets  are  cov- 
ered with  white  hairs. 

From  simple,  rigid  heads  or  spikes  to  the  most  graceful  of 
delicate,  drooping  panicles  there  are  all  grades  of  pleasing  forms. 

We  have  considered  the  surpassing  beauty  of  a  green  velvet 
lawn,  but  who  can  fal*  to  admire  the  glory  of  the  meadow  or  the 
pasture  on  the  plain  or  the  hill-side  spotted  with  fat  cattle  or 
"bunchy "  sheep ? 

There  is  much  to  admire  when  grasses  are  crowded  together  in 


318  ORNAMENTAL  GRASSES. 

large  masses,  whether  they  are  kept  closely  shorn  or  cropped,  or 
whether  they  grow  to  uniform  height  and  are  viewed  at  various 
stages  of  their  growth  as  the  clouds  drift  over  the  fields  or 
''they  wave  their  fairy  tassels  in  the  wind." 

Occasionally,  near  springs  and  streams,  the  frost  deposits  on 
the  panicles  a  covering  which  is  indescribably  beautiful. 

Within  a  few  years,  florists  have  given  considerable  attention 
to  the  grasses  for  winter  bouquets  and  for  other  decorative  pur- 
poses. Our  enterprising  growers  and  dealers  offer  the  seeds  of 
quite  a  long  list  of  the  best  for  these  purposes. 

In  one  other  respect  the  grasses  have  not  yet  begun  to  assume 
the  prominence  their  merits  demand.  The  writer  has  grown  a 
large  number  of  our  native  and  foreign  grasses,  and  has  studied 
them  where  each  kind  grew  by  itself  in  isolated  bunches  or 
patches,  and  he  is  free  to  say  that  in  no  other  place  does  a  grass 
appear  to  better  advantage.  Here  is  an  almost  endless  variety, 
as  exhibited  in  form,  texture  and  color  of  the  leaves.  The 
culms  also,  and  the  spikes,  racemes  or  panicles  reveal  their  pe- 
culiarities in  a  manner  which  is  most  varied  and  pleasing. 

Such  bunches  of  many  kinds  of  grasses  are  well  worthy  of  a 
place  among  the  ornamental  plats  of  our  lawns  and  gardens. 

"Where  so  many  are  fine  it  is  difficult  to  discriminate.  Those 
advertised  by  the  florists  are  all  good,  including  those  with  striped 


Mays,  sugar  cane,  Sorghum,  bamboo,  Arundo  donax,  Zizania 
aquatica,  Phragmites  communis,  and  other  tall  species  with 
broad  leaves  are  valuable  for  the  sub-tropical  garden.  The  two 
latter  are  excellent  for  growing  in  the  shallow  margins  of  ponds. 

For  plumes  and  bouquets  the  following  are  much  used,  for 
accounts  of  which  consult  the  text  elsewhere :  Briza  maxima, 
B.  media,  B.  gracilis,  Bromus  asper,  Lagurus  ovatus,  Polypogon 
monspeliensis,  Deschampsia  ecespitosa,  Phragmites  communis,  many 
species  of  Festuca,  Elymus  arenarius,  Agrostis  elgans,  A.  nebu- 


ORNAMENTAL  GRASSES.  319 

losa,  A.  scabra,  Panicum  capillare,  P.  virgatum,  Penmsetum 
longistylum,  Asprella  hystrix,  Erianthus  ravenna,  Coix  lacliryma, 
Gynerium  argenteum,  Arundo  conspicua,  Chloris  radiata,  Stipa 
pennata,  Hordeum  jubatum. 

There  is  scarcely  a  genus  of  grasses  of  any  size  which  does  not 
possess  one  or  more  species  of  special  value  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. To  the  botanist,  the  artist  or  the  florist  it  is  hardly  nec- 
essary to  mention  the  following  genera,  viz :  Panicum,  Setaria, 
Spartina,  Andropogon,  Phalaris,  Alopecurus,  Phleum,  Milium, 
MuJilenbergia,  Holcus,  Avena,  Cynodon,  Bouteloua,  Eleusine, 
Eatonia,  GHraphepltorum,  Eragrostis,  Melica,  Poa,  Glyceria,  Fes- 
tucay  Bromus,  Elymus,  Triticum,  Lolium,  and  many  others. 
We  hardly  know  where  to  stop  giving  names  for  this  purpose. 

With  reference  to  collecting  and  the  use  of  grasses,  A.  Hassard 
in  The  Garden  for  1875  has  the  following:  "Not  even  the  most 
delicate  fern  will  give  the  same  airy  look  to  a  vase  of  flowers  that 
a  few  spikes  of  wild  grasses  will  impart.  In  cutting  grasses  for 
use  they  must  be  selected  before  they  are  old  enough  to  fall  to 
pieces  when  dried.  Each  variety  should  be  tied  in  separate 
bunches,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  they  are  not  bruised  to- 
gether, for,  if  this  is  the  case,  when  the  bunch  is  opened  each 
spike  will  be  found  to  have  dried  in  its  crushed  position,  and  its 
form  will  be  thus  quite  spoilt.  All  grasses  should  be  dried  in 
an  upright  position,  particularly  those  of  a  drooping  character. 
Oats,  while  still  green,  are  also  very  pretty  in  large  arrangements. 
A  free  use  of  grasses  and  sedges  enables  you  to  dispense  with 
many  flowers.  The  bloom  of  ribbon  grass  is  very  useful  for  this 
purpose,  as  it  has  a  silver- like  lustre,  or  a  rose-pink  tint,  which 
is  very  pretty." 


380  THE  LEGUMINOK^    PULSE  FAMILY. 

CHAPTER   XV. 
THE  LEGUMINOS^E.     PULSE  FAMILY. 

Herbs,  shrubs,  or  trees.  Leaves  alternate,  usually  compound' 
and  stipulate.  Flowers  irregular  or  regular.  Calyx  mostly  5- 
lobed  with  one  lobe  next  to  the  bract.  Corolla  irregular  and  im- 
bricate (often  papilionaceous),  or  regular  and  valvate,  rarely  o.. 
One  petal  next  to  the  axis.  Stamens  usually  10,  rarely  5  or 
many,  monadelphous,  diadelphous  or  distinct,  mostly  perigynous. 
Pistil  with  a  1-celled  carpel  becoming  a  legume  or  an  indehiscent 
fruit,  sometimes  jointed.  Embryo  usually  destitute  of  endo- 
sperm. 

This  vast  family  contains,  at  the  lowest  estimate,  6,500  species, 
and  is  excelled  in  numbers  by  only  one  other,  viz :  the  Com- 
positae,  which  includes  asters,  golden  rods,  sunflowers,  dande- 
lions. Plants  of  the  pulse  family  are  widely  distributed  in  every 
climate  and  in  all  kinds  of  soil.  They  vary  in  size  from  the  lit- 
tle pussy  clover  to  the  giant  locust  trees  of  Brazil.  We  compre- 
hend only  a  small  portion  of  their  uses  and  wealth  when  notic- 
ing those  species  which  are  cultivated  or  wild  in  the  United 
States.  Red,  white,  mammoth  and  Alsike  clovers,  lucerne  or 
alfalfa  and  sainfoin  fill  a  place  which  could  not  well  be  supplied 
in  our  pastures  and  meadows,  while  peas  and  beans  are  scarcely 
of  more  importance  than  the  peanut  which  would  be  missed  in 
our  groceries  and  on  the  corners  of  the  streets,  as  well  as  by  the 
people  of  Africa  and  the  tropical  islands. 

The  pulse  family  is  the  most  wonderful  of  all  the  families  of 
plants  in  the  enormous  number  and  variety  of  its  useful  products. 
Its  wealth  is  fairly  bewildering.  It  contains  barks  of  great  use 
for  tanning,  many  delicious  perfumes,  valuable  medicines,  tough 
fibers  useful  for  cords,  ropes  or  coarse  cloth.  It  abounds  in  du- 


TRIFOLIUM,    L.   TREFOIL,   CLOVER.  321 

rable  timber  and  in  ornamental  and  fragrant  woods.  For  gums 
it  beats  the  world,  and  supplies  also  many  valuable  coloring 
materials.  It  is  well  supplied  with  ornamental  species. 

PAPILIONACE^E.       PULSE    FAMILY    PROPER. 

Leaves  mostly  pinnate  or  palmate.  Flowers  usually  in  axillary 
or  terminal  racemes,  spikes  or  heads.  Calyx  of  5  sepals,  united, 
often  unequally.  Corolla  perigynous,  very  irregular,  of  5  or 
rarely  fewer  petals,  papilionaceous ;  upper  petal  called  the  vexil- 
lum,  or  banner,  inclosing  the  others  in  the  bud;  2  lateral  called 
aloe  or  wings,  oblique  outside  and  often  adhering  to  the  2  lower, 
which  are  usually  united,  and  called  camna,  or  the  keel.  Sta- 
mens 10,  very  rarely  5,  monadelphous  or  diadelphous,  mostly  9 
united  and  a  free  one  next  the  banner. 

This  sub-family,  or  sub-order  includes  all  the  clovers  and 
other  leguminous  forage  plants  which  are  considered  in  this 
volume. 

TRIFOLIUM,    L.    TREFOIL,    CLOVER. 

Herbs,  usually  low.  Leaves  digitately,  rarely  pinnately  3-folio- 
late ;  stipules  adnate  to  the  petiole.  Flowers  capitate  or  spiked, 
rarely  solitary;  red,  purple  or  white,  rarely  yellow;  bracts  small 
or  o,  sometimes  forming  a  toothed  involucre.  Calyx-teeth  5,  sub- 
equal.  Petals  persistent ;  wings  longer  than  the  keel,  the  claws 
of  both  adnate  to  the  staminal  tube.  Upper  stamen  free ;  all  the 
filaments,  or  5  of  them,  dilated  at  the  tip ;  anthers  uniform. 
Htyle  filiform,  stigmas  oblique  or  dorsal ;  ovules  few.  Pod  small, 
indehiscent,  1-4— seeded,  nearly  enclosed  in  the  calyx.  Found  in 
the  north  temperate  and  warm  regions,  rare  in  southern ;  species 
150.  The  above  generic  description  is  mainly  adapted  from 
Hooker's  Flora  of  the  British  Islands. 
41 


FIG.  128. 


T.   PRATENSE,   L.  RED  CLOVER.  323 

T.  pratense,  L.  Red  Clover,  Broad  leaved  Clover,  Common 
Clover,  Meadow  Trefoil. — More  or  less  pubescent,  leaflets  ob- 
long, stipules  membranous,  free  portion  appressed  to  the  peti- 
ole, heads  terminal,  sessile,  globose,  at  length  ovoid,  subtented 
by  opposite  leaves  with  much  dilated  stipules,  calyx-teeth  slen- 
der, setaceous,  erect,  or  spreading  in  fruit,  the  lowest  longest. 

Pastures,  roadsides,  etc.,  ascending  to  1,900  ft.  in  the  High- 
lands [of  Great  Britain]  ;  flowers  from  May  to  September.  An- 
nual, biennial  or  perennial.  Stems  6-24  in.,  solid  or  fistular, 
robust  or  slender.  Leaflets  £-2  in.,  often  marked  with  a  white 
spot  or  lunate  band,  finely  toothed;  stipules  often  1-1£  in->  with 
long  setaceous  points.  Heads  ^-li  in.  diam.,  pink,  purple  or 
dirty  white.  Calyx-tube  with  a  2-lipped  connection  in  the  throat, 
strongly  nerved  :  teeth  not  exceeding  the  petals,  very  slender,  un- 
equal. Pod  opening  by  the  top  falling  off.  Found  in  Europe, 
!N.  Africa,  Siberia,  W.  Asia  to  India ;  introduced  in  N.  America 
certainly  before  the  Revolution. 

Early  History. — Although  in  a  general  way  this  is  a  plant 
familiar  to  all  farmers,  there  are  many  things  in  regard  to  its 
habits,  variation  and  other  peculiarities  yet  to  learn.  The  ex- 
pression "  To  live  in  clover "  has  become  proverbial,  and  is 
another  way  of  designating  a  good  living.  With  a  field  of  clover 
knee  high,  or  up  to  the  eyes,  means  fat  cattle  and  swine  and 
bunchy  sheep.  Some  one  styles  the  plant  "The  red  plumed 
commander-in-chief  of  the  manurial  forces." 

Red  clover  was  known  and  prized  over  2,000  years  ago  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  but  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  cul- 
tivated, even  in  the  simplest  way,  till  used  in  England  about 
1633, — 253  years  ago,  or  44  years  before  the  cultivation  of  peren- 
nial rye  grass,  and  nearly  100  years  before  that  of  any  other  of 
the  true  grasses. 

FIG.  128.— Trifolium  pratense,  L.  (Red  Clover'),  part  of  a  plant  and  a  flower  enlarged. 
— (Sudworth.) 


324 


THE  ROOTS  OF  RED  CLOVER. 


For  a  long  time  it  was  propagated  by  scattering  the  seed  in 
the  chaff  with  all  the  weeds  and  rubbish,  as  it  accumulated  at 
the  stack  or  barn. 

Extent  of  Roots. — Red  clover  usually  has  a  large  tap  root, 
with  numerous  branches  extending  in  all  directions.  Sometimes 
the  tap  root  is  short  and  soon  equaled  by  its  branches.  These 
roots  rarely  ever  extend  less  than  two  feet  below  the  surface,  as 
in  moist,  compact  land,  or  where  the  surface  is  very  rich. 
Where  the  subsoil  is  at  all  open  and  inclined  to  be  dry,  it  is  not 
unusual  for  the  roots  of  clover  to  reach  down  six  feet  or  more 
below  the  surface;  however,  the  main  bulk  of  the  roots  are 
usually  within  a  foot  of  the  surface.  Various  experiments  and 
careful  estimates  have  shown  that  fully  one-half  the  weight  of  a 
clover  plant  is  below  the  ground  in  the  form  of  roots. 

Concerning  the  stems  and  leaves  I  shall  speak  more  in  detail 
in  the  paragraph  which  treats  of  variations  of  the  plant. 

The  Flower. — The  flower  is  irregular,  papilionaceous  and  its 
structure  rather  difficult  to  understand  without  considerable  study 
of  specimens  or  good  illustrations.  I  take  pleasure  in  reproduc- 
ing the  excellent  illustrations  of  Hermann  Miihler,  as  found  in 
his  Fertilization  of  Flowers.  ' 


FIG.  129. 


THE  FLOWER.  325 

The  nectar  is  secreted  by  small  glands  at  the  base,  on  the  in- 
side of  the  tube  formed  by  the  cohesion  of  thenine  inferior  fila- 
ments, and  accumulates  around  the  base  of  the  ovary.  In  the 
center  is  the  pistil,  the  style  of  which  curves  upwards,  carrying 
the  stigma  a  little  beyond  the  anthers.  The  tenth  stamen  is  free, 
and  for  most  of  its  length  is  turned  to  one  side,  making  it 
quite  easy  for  the  long  tongue  of  a  bee  to  reach  the  nectar. 

In  the  words  of  Miihler,  "  If  now  a  bee  inserts  its  proboscis 
beneath  the  vexillum,  while  it  clings  with  its  fore  legs  on  to  the 
alae  (which  is  coherent  with  the  carina)  resting  its  middle  and 
hind  legs  on  a  lower  part  of  the  inflorescence,  the  carina  and 
alae  are  drawn  downwards,  and  the  stigmas  and  anthers  are 
thrust  up  against  the  under  side  of  the  bee's  head;  the  stigma, 
standing  highest,  receives  the  pollen  brought  by  the  bee,  and  in- 
stantly afterwards  the  anthers  dust  the  bee  with  fresh  pollen. 
Cross-fertilization  is  thus  insured;  self-fertilization  may  take 
place  as  the  bee  draws  back  its  head,  but  is  probably  neutralized 
and  superseded  by  the  immediately  preceding  cross-fertilization. 

"  In  order  to  reach  the  honey  in  this  way  (to  the  bottom  of  the 
tube)  an  insect  must  possess  a  proboscis  at  least  9  to  10  m.  m.  long. 
The  pollen  is  accessible  to  all  insects  which  can  press  down  the 
carina ;  and  such  insects,  whether  they  reach  the  nectar  or  not, 
will  perform  cross-fertilization." 

Bumble  Bees  a  Great  Help  in  Fertilizing  Red  Clover.— 
The  writer,  as  well  as  some  of  his  students,  has  made  many  ex- 
periments which  help  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  above  heading. 

FIG.  129.— IVf/oKum  pratense,  L. 

1.— Flower,  from  below. 

2. — Ditto,  from  above,  after  removing  the  vexillum. 

•  3. — Anterior  part  of  flower,  twice  as  much  enlarged ;  the  edges  of  the  earina  have 
been  forced  apart. 

4.— Right  ala,  from  within.    (The  claws  of  4  and  5  have  been  broken  short  off.) 

5.— Right  half  of  the  carina  from  without. 

6.— The  essential  organs  emerging  from  the  depressed  carina. 

a,  calyx;  h,  tube  formed  by  the  coalescence  of  the  nine  filaments  with  the  claws  of 
the  vexillum,  alee,  and  carina;  c,  vexillum;  f?,  concave  part  of  the  inner  side  of  the 
ala;  e,  lower  border  of  ala,  bent  outwards;  /,  outward  surface  of  ala;  0,  pouched 
swelling  on  the  base  of  the  ala;  ?i,  carina:  i,  style;  fe,  superior  free  stamen;  I,  stig- 
ma; m,  anthers ;  n.  point  of  union  between  alae  and  carina ;  o,  point  of  flexure  of  the 
carina;  p,  part  of  the  upper  border  of  the  ala,  bent  outwards;  g,  downward  extension, 
of  vexillum.— (Mtihler.) 


326  BUMBLE  BEES  AS  FEETILTZERS. 

The  following  single  experiment  will  serve  as  an  example. 
Two  fine  bunches  of  the  first  crop  of  clover,  apparently  alike, 
were  covered  with  mosquito  netting.  "N"o  insects  were  seen  about 
either,  except  those  mentioned  below.  On  June  29th  a  bum- 
ble bee  was  placed  inside  of  one  netting  and  seen  to  work  on  the 
flowers. 

On  July  10th  two  more  bumble  bees  were  introduced  and  seen 
to  work,  and  on  July  12th  more  bees  were  introduced,  and  were 
seen  to  work  on  the  flowers. 

On  July  31st  50  ripe  heads  were  selected  from  each  plant,  and 
the  seeds  carefully  shelled  and  counted.  The  50  heads  on  the 
plant  where  the  bumble  bees  were  excluded  yielded  seeds  as 
follows  : 

40  heads  yielded 0 

6  heads  yielded  one  seed  each 6 

1  head  yielded 2 

1  head  yielded 3 

1  head  yielded.. 5 

1  head  yielded 9 

Total --.- 25 

The  50  heads  on  the  plant  where  bumble  bees  were  inserted 
and  seen  to  work  under  the  netting  yielded  seeds  as  follows : 
25  heads  yielded 0 

2  heads  yielded  one  each 2 

5  heads  yielded  two  each .10 

3  heads  yielded  three  each 9 

3  heads  yielded  four  each 12 

3  heads  yielded  five  each 15 

1  head  yielded  seven 7 

1  head  yielded  eight 8 

1  head  yielded  nine 9 

1  head  yielded  ten 10 

,  1  head  yielded  twelve - 12 

Total... 94 

In  the  above  experiment  both  lots  of  heads  were  covered  alike 


BUMBLE  BEES  AS  FERTILIZERS.  327 

with  netting,  that  no  one  could  say  the  difference  in  yield  of 
seed  was  due  to  the  fact  that  one  lot  was  covered  and  the  other  not 
covered.  It  will  be  seen,  that  where  bees  were  observed  to  work 
on  the  flowers  the  yield  of  seeds  was  nearly  four  times  that  where 
the  bees  were  kept  away.  But  perhaps  the  two  plants  would 
not  have  yielded  the  same  number  of  seeds  had  they  been  treated 
in  every  way  precisely  alike. 

Iir  reply  to  this  suggestion  I  can  offer  the  following,  which 
shows  that  in  six  examples,  selected  at  random,  only  one  was 
found  in  which  the  yield  of  seeds  was  nearly  twice  the  number 
in  the  heads  containing  the  fewest  seeds.  On  September  13th, 
1882, 1  selected  of  the  second  crop  of  red  clover  five  plants  within 
ten  feet  of  each  other,  which  seemed  to  be  much  alike.  They 
had  not  been  covered  in  any  way.  The  seeds  from  50  good  heads 
of  each  plant  were  shelled  out  with  the  following  results :  1,  260 ; 
1,  275;  1,  4GO;  1,  485;  1,  1,820.  It  will  be  seen  that  50  heads 
from  plant  number  five  contained  only  about  one-third  more 
seeds  than  50  heads  from  plant  number  one. 

In  another  place,  50  heads  selected  from  one  plant  yielded 
2,290  seeds,  nearly  twice  as  many  as  plant  number  one  in  the 
first  lot. 

Mr.  C.  Darwin  covered  one  hundred  flower-heads  of  red  clover 
by  a  net  and  not  a  single  seed  was  produced,  while  100  heads 
growing  outside  yielded  by  careful  estimate  2,720  seeds.  He 
says:  "It  is  at  least  certain  that  bumble  bees  are  the  chief  fer- 
tilizers of  the  common  red  clover." 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  say  here  that  experiments  with 
white  clover  show  that  visits  of  honey  bees  increase  the  yield  of 
seeds  enormously.  In  one  case 

8  protected  heads  yielded 5  seeds 

8  visited  by  bees  yielded 236  seeds 

This  is  an  increase  of  over  47  fold  in  favor  of  the  bees.    . 

A  large  number  of  carefully  conducted  experiments  made  by 


328  THE  SLEEP  OF  LEAVES. 

many  persons  on  a  great  variety  of  plants  show  results  quite  as 
remarkable  as  those  above  cited. 

Here  the  bees  and  bumble  bees  not  only  make  use  of  a  waste 
product,  but  help  the  plants  as  well.  Most  botanists  now  be- 
lieve that  odor  and  showy  flowers  are  advertisements  for  attract- 
ing insects;  and  that  nectar  and  surplus  pollen  are  the  wages  to 
compensate  insects  for  services  rendered  in  fertilization. 

If  this  be  the  case  should  not  the  farmer  seek  to  encourage 
meadow  mice,  which  make  the  nests  sought  by  bumble  bees  in 
which  to  rear  their  young.  The  bumble  bees,  at  least,  should  be 
encouraged.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  time  may  come 
when  queen  bumble  bees  will  be  reared,  bought  and  sold  for 
their  benefit  to  the  crop  of  clover  seed. 

The  Sleep  of  Leaves. — This  can  in  no  way  be  compared  with 
the  sleep  of  animals,  but  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  leaves  of  clo- 
vers take  different  positions  at  night  from  those  assumed  during 
the  day  time. 

This  difference  in  position  is  caused 
by  turgescence  in  the  pulvinus,  which  is 
the  name  given  to  a  mass  of  small  cells 
of  a  pale  color  found  in  a  certain  portion 


«,  leaf  during  the  day ;  7>,  leaf     of  the  leaf  stalk, 
i  night. 


FIG.  13Q.—Trifoliumrei>en>s ; 
,  leaf  during  the  day ;  7),  lei  " 
asleep  at  night.— (Darwin.) 

Experiments  show  that  leaves  kept  open  or  spread  apart  con- 
tain more  dew  in  the  morning,  and  hence  become  cooler  than 
those  which  approach  each  other.  The  leaves  crowd  together, 
or  "sleep,"  for  the  same  purpose  that  pigs  crowd  together  in 
cold  weather,  viz :  to  keep  warm.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
leaves  which  sleep  do  not  remain  quiet  during  the  night,  but 
continue,  without  exception,  to  move  during  the  whole  twenty- 
four  hours.  All  non-sleeping  leaves  are  also  in  incessant  motion, 
circum nutating.  The  sleep  of  plants  is  a  mere  modified  form  of 
this  universal  circumnutation. 


A  LITTLE  AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY.  329 

During  a  warm,  dry  day  leaves  also  assume  the  sleeping  po- 
sition, which  aids  in  checking  evaporation. 

There  are  more  "sleeping"  plants  among  the  Leguminosae 
than  are  found  in  all  other  families  put  together. 

A  Little  Agricultural  Chemistry. — Of  the  thirteen  elements 
necessary  for  plant  growth  the  farmer  usually  need  take  but  little 
care,  except  in  the  supply  of  potassium,  phosphorus  and  nitro- 
gen, and  of  these  three  nitrogen  is  the  most  precious  and  costly 
to  obtain.  All  agricultural  plants  draw  much  of  their  food  from 
the  atmosphere,  and  of  those  used  by  the  farmer  probably  none 
are  much,  if  any,  exceeded  by  clover  in  the  large  proportion  of 
nutriment  thus  derived.  In  this  respect  other  leguminous  crops 
are  much  like  red  clover. 

"Clover  seed  is  the  best  manure  that  a  farmer  can  use." 
Clover  has  been  called  "a  trap  for  nitrogen,"  as  it  collects  and 
presents  large  quantities  of  combined  nitrogen  in  a  form  ready 
to  nourish  growing  crops. 

In  the  words  of  Dr.  Kedzie :  "  With  an  adequate  supply  of 
combined  nitrogen  all  the  other  chemicals  of  agriculture  become 
active,  while  a  limited  supply  of  active  nitrogen  correspondingly 
limits  the  action  of  the  rest.  For  high  farming,  or  the  raising 
of  exceptionally  large  crops,  the  great  want  is  an  abundant  and 
cheap  supply  of  ammonia  and  the  nitrates. 

"An  acre  of  good  clover  will  onake  5,000  pounds  of  hay,  con- 
taining 282£  pounds  of  mineral  matter  or  ash.  In  this  ash  will 
be  97£  pounds  of  potash,  96  pounds  of  lime,  34|-  pounds  of  mag- 
nesia, and  28  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  hay  will  also  con- 
tain 108  pounds  of  combined  nitrogen." 

The  roots  and  stubble  contain  fully  as  much  of  these  elements 
as  the  hay. 

Baron  J.  B.  Lawes  found  that  in  autumn,  after  tho  last  crop 
of  clover  was  cut,  that  remaining  above  ground,  and  to  the  depth 

of  72  inches  was  examined  : 
42 


330  THE  USES  AND  VALUE. 

Stubble,  etc.,  above  ground  contained 2,6C9  pounds  per  acre,  dryv 

1st  nine  inches  contained 3,017  pounds  per  acre,  dry. 

2d  nine  inches  contained  . 275  pounds  per  acre,  dry. 

3d  nine  inches  contained 191  pounds  per  acre,  dry. 

Total 6,152 

This  was  between  three  and  four  times  as  much  dry  matter  as 
the  residue  of  the  barley. 

In  the  -words  of  Dr.  Kedzie :  "  The  clover  hay  or  sod  contains 
enough  phosphoric  acid  for  more  than  double  an  average  crop, 
enough  nitrogen  for  more  than  four  average  crops,  and  potash 
for  more  than  six  average  crops  of  wheat!  If  any  person  were 
preaching  the  gospel  of  agriculture  he  well  might  hold  up  the 
triple  leaf  of  the  red  clover  as  the  symbol  of  trinity  of  bless- 
ings to  the  farmer,  furnishing  for  his  cereal  crops,  from  other- 
wise inadequate  sources,  a  sufficient  supply  of  potassium,  phos- 
phorus and  nitrogen.  If  I  were  designing  an  emblematic  seal  of 
our  national  agriculture  I  would  make  the  central  figure  the 
clover  leaf.  For  the  farmer  it  is  the  most  effective  trap  for  ni- 
trogen within  his  reach." 

The  late  George  Geddes,  of  New  York,  said:  "It  has  been 
demonstrated  beyond  a  doubt  that  clover  and  plaster  are  by  far 
the  cheapest  manure  that  can  be  had  for  our  lands, — so  much 
cheaper  than  barnyard  manure  that  the  mere  loading  of  and 
spreading  costs  more  than  the  plaster  and  clover.  Plow  under 
the  clover  on  the  more  distant  fields  when  it  is  at  full  growth. 

"A  very  considerable  part  of  the  cultivated  land  of  Onondaga 
County  has  never  had  any  other  manuring  than  this  clover  and 
gypsum,  and  its  fertility  is  not  diminishing.  The  cost  per  acre 
is  $2.32.'* 

The  Uses  and  Talue, — The  following  as  to  the  use  and  man- 
agement of  red  clover  is  gleaned  from  Harris'  Talks  on  Manures  : 
"  Clover  is,  unquestionably,  the  great  renovating  crop  of  Ameri- 
can agriculture.  A  crop  of  clover,  equal  to  two  tons  of  hay, 


THE  USES  AND  VALUE.  331 

when  plowed  under,  will  furnish  more  ammonia  to  the  soil  than 
twenty  tons  of  straw-made  manure,  fresh  and  wet,  or  twelve  tons- 
of  ordinary  barnyard  manure. 

"  I  prefer  to  make  the  clover  into  hay  and  feed  the  animals, 
as  they  seldom  take  out  more  than  from  five  to  ten  per  cent,  of 
all  the  nitrogen  furnished  in  the  food, — and  less  still  of  mineral 
matter.  If  you  plow  it  under  you  are  sure  of  it.  There  is  no- 
loss.  In  feeding  it  out  you  may  lose  more  or  less  from  leaching 
and  injurious  fermentation.  As  things  are  on  many  farms,  it  is. 
perhaps  best  to  plow  under  the  clover  for  manure  at  once.  As 
things  ought  to  be  it  is  a  most  wasteful  practice.  Clover  is  good 
for  wheat ;  plaster  is  good  for  clover.  The  roots  run  deep,  draw- 
ing large  amounts  of  water,  and  can  live  on  very  weak  food.  The 
clover  takes  up  this  food  and  concentrates  it.  The  clover  does 
not  create  the  plant  food ;  it  merely  saves  it.  To  improve  sandy 
land,  instead  of  plowing  the  clover  under  or  feeding  it  off,  mow 
the  crop  just  as  it  commences  to  blossom  and  let  the  clover  lie. 
There  would  be  no  loss  of  fertilizing  by  evaporation,  and  the 
clover  hay  acts  as  a  mulch.  Mow  the  second  crop  about  the  first 
week  in  August." 

The  following  computation  of  the  relative  money  value  of  one 
ton  of  various  foods  for  producing  manure  is  from  the  experi- 
ments of  Mr.  Lawes: 

Cottonseed  meal... $27  86 

Linseed  cake 19  72 

Beans 17  73 

Wheat  bran 14  5£ 

Clover  hay 9  64 

Indian  meal 6  63 

Meadow  hay 6  43 

Oat  straw 2  90 

Potatoes 1  5fr 

Turnips 86- 

All  agricultural  plants  draw  most  of  their  food,  directly  or  in- 


833  THE  USES  AND  VALUE. 

directly,  from  the  atmosphere,  and  of  those  used  none  are  ex- 
ceeded by  clover  in  the  large  proportion  of  nutriment  thus  de- 
rived. 

If  the  stubble  and  roots  contain  more  than  half  of  the  manu- 
rial  value  of  red  clover,  and  if  live  stock  only  appropriate  from 
five  to  ten  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen,  and  the  other  90  to  95  per 
cent,  goes  back  to  the  field  or  dung  heap,  it  certainly  must  be 
the  best  practice,  as  a  rule,  to  feed  red  clover  instead  of  plowing 
it  all  under. 

I  have  not  seen  a  more  concise  and  valuable  summary  of  this 
matter  than  the  one  by  the  late  Dr.  Voelcker,  as  found  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Eoyal  Agricultural  Society  of  England  for  1868 : 

1.  "A  good  crop  of  clover  removes  from  the  soil  more  potash, 
phosphoric  acid,  lime,  and  other  mineral  matters,  which  enter 
into  the  composition  of  the  ashes  of  our  cultivated  crops,  than 
any  other  crop  usually  grown  in  this  country." 

2.  ' '  There  is  fully  three  times  as  much  nitrogen  in  a  crop  of 
clover  as  in  the  average  produce  of  the  grain  and  straw  of  wheat 
per  acre." 

3.  "  Notwithstanding  the  large  amount  of  nitrogenous  matter 
of  ash  constituents  of  plants  in  the  produce  of  an  acre,  clover  is 
an  excellent  preparatory  crop  for  wheat." 

4.  "  During  the  growth  of  clover  a  large  amount  of  nitro- 
genous matter  accumulates  in  the  soil." 

5.  "  This  accumulation,  which  is  greatest  in  the  surface  soil, 
is  due  to  decaying  leaves  dropped  during  the  growth  of  clover, 
and  to  an  abundance  of  roots,  containing,  when  dry,  from  If  to 
2  per  cent,  of  nitrogen." 

6.  "The   clover  roots  are  stronger  and  more  numerous,  and 
more  leaves  fall  on  the  ground,  when  clover  is  grown  for  seed, 
than  when  it  is  mown  for  hay ;  in  consequence  more  nitrogen  is 
left  after  clover  seed  than  after  hay,  which  accounts  for  wheat 
yielding  a  better  crop  after  clover  seed  than  after  hay." 


THE   USES  AND  VALUE.  333 

7.  "  The  development  of  roots  being  checked  when  the  pro- 
duce, in  a  green  condition,  is  fed  off  by  sheep,  in  all  probability 
leaves  still  less  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  soil  than  when  clover 
is  allowed  to  get  riper  and  is  mown  for  hay ;  thus,  no  doubt,  ac- 
counting for  the  observation  made  by  pastoral  men  that,  not- 
withstanding the  return  of  the  produce  in  the  sheep  excrements, 
wheat  is  generally  stronger  and  yields  better  after  clover  mown 
for  hay  than  when  the  clover  is  fed  off  green  by  sheep." 

8.  "  The  nitrogenous  matter  in  the  clover-remains,  on  their 
gradual  decay,  are  finally  transformed  into  nitrates,  thus  afford- 
ing a  continuous  source  of  food,  on  which  cereal  crops  especially 
delight  to  grow." 

9.  "  There  is  strong  presumptive  evidence  that  the  nitrogen 
which  exists  in  the  shape  of  ammonia  and  nitric  acid,  and  de- 
scends in  these  combinations  with  the  rain  which  falls  on  the 
ground,  satisfies,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  requirements 
of  the  clover  crop.     This  crop  causes  a  large  accumulation  of 
nitrogenous  matters,    which  are  gradually  changed   in  the  soil 
into  nitrates.     The  atmosphere  thus  furnishes  nitrogenous  food 
to  the  succeeding  wheat  indirectly,  and,  so  to  say,  gratis." 

10.  "  Clover  not  only  provides  abundance  of  nitrogenous  food, 
but  delivers  this  food  in  a  really  available  power  (as  nitrates) 
more  gradually  and  continually,  and  with  more  certainty  of  a 
good  result,   than  such  food  can  be  applied  to  the  land  in  the 
shape  of  nitrogenous  spring  top  dressing." 

The  above  conclusions  should  be  posted  up  and  read  daily  by 
every  farmer  till  they  are  indelibly  fixed  in  his  mind. 

Owing  to  the  great  depth  to  which  the  roots  penetrate  the  soil, 
— frequently  six  feet  or  more, — they  help  to  bring  up  a  run-down 
farm ;  they  bring  the  valuable  ingredients  from  a  great  depth 
and  store  a  large  part  of  them  in  the  large  roots  near  the  sur- 
face, where  they  are  available  for  future  plant  growth. 


334  RED  CLOVER  IN    MANY  LANDS. 

Red  Clover  in  Many  Lands. — Red  clover  is  well  adapted  to 
many  portions  of  the  temperate  regions  of  the  earth.  It  likes 
best  a  soil  of  clay  loam,  rich  in  lime,  but  will  thrive  better  than 
Timothy  and  most  other  true  grasses  where  the  land  is  sandy  or 
gravelly.  On  good  grass  land  it  is  usually  the  custom  to  sow 
Timothy  with  red  clover,  although  it  blossoms  some  three  weeks 
later.  Many  prefer  to  sow  orchard  grass  with  clover,  as  they 
flower  and  are  ready  to  cut  at  the  same  time.  Timothy  is  well 
adapted  to  sow  with  the  large,  late,  or  mammoth  clover. 

Eed  clover  is  not  only  a  general  favorite  in  the  United  States 
from  Maine  and.  New  Jersey  to  Iowa  and  Illinois,  but  is  very 
valuable  further  West  and  South. 

For  Kansas,  Professor  Shelton  reports  that  it  deserves  a  prom- 
inent place  in  the  list  of  forage  plants.  In  some  very  dry  sea- 
sons it  fails  almost  entirely,  but  during  the  favorable  seasons  it 
flourishes  abundantly  and  yields  more — both  of  hay  and  pasture 
— than  is  generally  obtained  in  the  East.  When  land  is  once 
seeded  it  never  runs  out,  as  is  the  case  in  the  Eastern  States,  but 
thickens  and  spreads  continually  by  self-seeding.  We  believe 
that  nowhere  are  such  large  crops  of  clover  seed  grown  as  in 
Kansas. 

In  Mississippi,  Professor  Phares  says,  red  clover  grows  most 
luxuriantly  on  all  their  lands  with  tenacious  red  or  yellow  clay 
subsoil,  even  though  the  soil  be  thin;  and  once  set,  it  remains 
as  long  as  the  farmer  desires,  provided  he  does  not  mow  more 
than  twice  each  year,  nor  graze  too  heavily. 

In  Georgia,  the  late  C.  W.  Howard  says:  " This  is  the  most 
valuable  herbaceous  plant  to  the  Southern  farmer.  It  bears 
grazing  admirably,  makes  excellent  hay,,  and  in  large  quantity, 
and  thrives  on  land  of  moderate  fertility,,  The  doubts  as  to 
whether  red  clover  would  succeed  at  the  South  have  been  dis- 
pelled. At  the  South  it  lasts  for  several  years." 

Red  clover  is  valuable  to  enrich  the  land  and  hence  to  enrich 


CLOVER  AS  A  WEED-EXTERMINATOR.  335 

the  owner ;  it  is  not  excelled  by  any  forage  crop  as  a  wholesome 
summer  pasture  for  swine,  and  some  have  spoken  very  highly 
of  its  use  in  winter  when  fed  to  swine  in  the  form  of  hay. 

For  soiling,  a  good  growth  of  red  clover  is  very  valuable,  and 
it  has  often  been  packed  into  the  silo  to  feed  as  ensilage  in  the 
winter. 

Clover  as  a  Weed-Exterminator. — We  have  ample  testimo- 
ny from  a  great  variety  of  sources  that  red  clover,  with  a  little 
gypsum  and  perhaps  a  top  dressing  of  some  other  fertilizer,  is 
excellent  to  smother  and  kill  out  our  worst  weeds. 

The  following  was  furnished  by  special  request  by  J.  S.  Wood- 
ward, now  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Rural  New  Yorker :  "  Can- 
ada thistles  have  long  roots  which  store  up  nourishment  during 
the  latter  part  of  summer  and  fall  to  feed  the  spring  growth.  I 
kill  the  thistles  without  the  loss  of  a  crop  as  follows :  Have  the 
land  rich,  if  possible,  at  least  have  it  well  seeded  to  clover  and 
by  top  dressing  with  plaster,  ashes,  or  by  some  means  get  as  good 
growth  to  the  clover  as  possible.  As  soon  as  the  clover  is  in  full 
bloom,  and  here  and  there  a  thistle  shows  a  blossom,  mow  and 
make  the  crop,  thistles  and  all,  into  hay.  After  mowing,  apply 
a  little  plaster  to  quickly  start  the  growth  of  clover.  You  will 
find  this  to  come  much  quicker  than  the  thistles.  As  soon  as 
the  clover  has  a  good  start,  from  July  20tli  to  August  5th,  plow 
down,  being  careful  to  plow  all  the  land  and  to  fully  cover  all 
growth.  Then  roll  and  harrow  at  once,  so  as  to  cover  every 
thistle.  But  few  thistles  will  ever  show  themselves  after  this, 
and  they  will  look  pale  and  weak.  WThen  they  do  show,  culti- 
vate thoroughly  with  a  cultivator  having  broad,  sharp  teeth,  so 
as  to  cut  every  one  off  under  the  ground.  In  two  days  go  over 
with  a  sharp  hoe  and  cut  off  any  that  may  have  escaped  the  cul- 
tivator. Watch  the  thistles,  and  keep  using  the  hoe  and  culti- 
yator  until  freezing  weather.  You  will  see  them  getting  scarcer 
and  scarcer  each  time  and  looking  as  though  they  had  the  con- 


336  PUTTING  IN  THE  SEED. 

sumption.  By  plowing  this  field  just  before  freezing  up  yoir 
will  have  the  land  in  the  finest  condition  for  a  spring  crop. 
This  plan  not  only  kills  thistles  but  ox-eye  daisies  and  other 
weeds.  It  is  much  better  than  a  summer-fallow,  and  without 
the  loss  of  any  crop." 

Putting  in  the  Seed. — Too  little  care  is  exercised  in  select- 
ing the  seed,  as  most  of  it  contains  more  or  less  seeds  of  per- 
nicious weeds,  and  especially  does  this  caution  become  more  and 
more  necessary  as  the  country  becomes  older.  The  troublesome 
weeds  of  a  farm  can  generally  be  directly  traced  to  foul  seeds 
sown  with  grasses  and  clovers  for  the  meadows  and  pastures, 

In  the  northern  portion  of  the  United  States  numerous  experi- 
ments seem  to  clearly  indicate  that  it  is  best  to  sow  seeds  of  red 
clover  in  spring.  In  some  sections  it  is  sown  even  before  freez- 
ing ceases,  but  many  now  practice  sowing  just  in  time  for  the 
young  plants  to  begin  growth  with  the  first  early  vegetation. 
If  sown  in  autumn,  especially  if  late,  the  young  plants  are  very 
likely  too  feeble  to  survive  the  winter.  If  at  all  in  autumn  the 
date  should  be  early  enough  to  give  plants  a  good  start.  In  the 
warmer  portions  of  our  Union  clover  is  often  sown  in  autumn, 
or  even  in  winter. 

Clover  seed  is  most  generally  sown  where  wheat  and  some 
Timothy  were  sown  the  autumn  previous,  though  it  is  not  un- 
frequently  sown  in  spring,  with  a  thin  seeding  of  oats  or  barley. 

It  is  a  common  practice  with  our  best  farmers  to  harrow  the 
ground  very  lightly  before  sowing  the  clover  seed.  This  bene- 
fits the  wheat  as  well  as  favors  the  growth  of  the  clover. 

Where  no  grass  seeds  have  been  sown,  at  the  West,  the  farmer 
sows  G,  8  or  10  or  even  12  pounds  of  clover  seed  to  the  acre,  but 
at  the  East  25  or  30  pounds  is  not  thought  too  much. 

In  Great  Britain,  which  possesses  a  moist  climate  favorable  to* 
the  development  of  grasses  and  clovers,  it  is  the  practice  to  sow 
much  more  seed  than  is  usually  sown  in  the  United  States. 


CARE  OF  THE   YOUNG   CLOVER.  337 

There  are  16,000  clover  seeds  to  the  ounce,  or  156,000  to  the 
pound.  In  ten  pounds  there  are  1,560,000  seeds.  In  England 
farmers  often  sow  seeds  of  grasses  and  clovers  enough,  if  all 
grew,  to  produce  16,878,000  to  27,000,000  plants,  which  is  ten  to 
fifteen  times  the  amount  of  seed  thought  sufficient  by  our  west- 
ern farmers. 

The  Englishman  seeks  to  get  large  numbers  of  fine,  small 
stems  instead  of  fewer  large,  coarse  ones. 

In  various  portions  of  our  country,  isolated  farmers  have  sown 
clover  in  the  spring  on  well  prepared  land  without  the  presence 
of  another  crop,  and  they  get  a  crop  of  grass  or  clover  the  first 
year.  This  practice  deserves  more  thought  from  the  average 
farmer. 

For  further  remarks  on  this  last  idea  consult  a  former  para- 
graph on  seeding  without  a  crop. 

Care  of  the  Young  Clover. — It  has  often  been  shown,  be- 
yond question,  that  the  young  plants  will  be  more  certain  to  live 
and  will  grow  faster  and  become  stouter,  if  not  sown  with  a 
grain  crop.  If  the  wheat  is  thick  and  large  the  clover  is  apt  to 
suffer;  if  the  wheat  is  thin  and  light  clover  is  likely  to  become 
large  and  crowd  it. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  young  clover  is  most  generally 
greatly  benefited  by  even  a  very  ligkt  dusting  with  gypsum,  say 
one-fourth  to  one-half  or  even  a  bushel  to  the  acre. 

Sheep  and  swine  must  not  be  allowed  to  feed  young  clover,  at 
least  very  long,  because  it  may  be  much  damaged,  or  even  killed. 
Clover  needs  a  little  time  to  get  its  roots  well  established,  and 
this  cannot  be  done  without  the  aid  of  green  tops. 

Clover  fails  "to  catch*'  for  a  great  variety  of  reasons.  The 
soil  may  be  very  much  "run  down,"  or  the  seed  is  poor,  sown 
too  late,  the  ground  is  too  rough,  not  Harrowed  nor  rolled ;  the 
oats  or  wheat  get  the  start  and  choke  it  out  or  enfeeble  the 
plants;  the  weather  in  spring  is  too  dry,  too  hot;  the  young 
43 


338  WINTER  KILLING   AND  REMEDIES. 

plants   are   fed   too   closely.      The   frosts   of  spring  may  kill  th« 
young  plants. 

Winter  Killing  and  Remedies. — lied  clover  not  unfrequently 
"winter  kills"  or  "heaves  out,"  and  the  dead  plants  in  spring 
stick  up  out  of  the  ground  several  inches,  especially  in  winter, 
when  there  has  been  little  snow  on  the  ground  and  frequent 
alternations  of  freezing  and  thawing.  To  prevent  winter  killing 
see  that  the  plants  are  well  established  in  autumn  and  that  they 
are  not  fed  off  too  closely.  Thorough  tile  drainage  is  a  great 
benefit.  A  moderate  amount  of  tops  left  on  the  ground  will 
often  be  of  some  assistance,  or  a  very  thin  mulch  of  straw  put 
on  after  the  ground  has  first  become  well  frozen.  A  mulching 
of  straw  early  in  autumn  has  sometimes  done  more  harm  than 
good.  No  attempt,  at  the  North,  should  be  made  to  save  red 
clover  over  to  the  third  year,  as  such  efforts  are  not  successful. 

As  spring  approaches  and  the  soil  warms  up  it  is  rather  dis- 
couraging to  find  the  clover  killed  out.  The  proprietor  often 
plows  up  the  ground  and  puts  in  another  crop,  thus  leaving  the 
land  in  a  still  worse  condition  for  the  next  seeding  to  clover. 
He  very  likely  raises  millet  or  Indian  corn  or  rye  or  buys  of  his 
neighbors  a  supply  of  winter  feed.  In  case  of  partial  winter 
killing  the  writer  cannot  help  thinking  that  too  little  attention 
has  been  given  ''to  patching  up"  such  meadows  in  spring. 
By  this  is  meant  to  harrow,  re-seed,  and,  if  possible,  top  dress 
with  some  sort  of  manure. 

The  Best  Time  for  Cutting  Clover  for  Hay.— The  follow- 
ing is  from  the  pen  of  Prof.  H.  P.  Armsby:  "What  has  been 
shown  to  be  true  of  meadow  hay  in  this  respect  applies  also  to 
clover.  The  earlier  it  is  cut  the  more  concentrated  and  digesti- 
ble the  fodder,  while  as  it  grows  older  the  crude  fibre  increases 
and  it  becomes  coarse  and  less  easily  digestible.  In  regard  to 
the  best  times  for  cutting  clover  the  same  rules  apply  as  those 
given  for  cutting  grass.  In  regard  to  the  advantages  of  early 


SAVING   CLOVER  SEED.  339 

and  frequent  cuttings,    the   experiments  do   not  all   give    such 
striking  results  as  those  on  grass." 

For  further  notes  in  regard  to  securing  clover  hay  the  reader 
is  referred  to  a  former  chapter  of  this  work. 

Saving  Clover  Seed. — The  proper  time  to  cut  for  seed  is  a 
difficult  one  to  state,  especially  as  the  heads  ripen  unevenly. 
These  heads  should  be  examined,  for  sometimes  the  earliest  con- 
tain most  seeds,  and  sometimes  the  main  bulk  of  the  seed  is 
found  in  heads  which  mature  later  in  the  season. 

Some  persons  have  observed  that  clover,  when  cut  rather  early, 
from  the  5th  to  the  15th  of  June  at  the  North,  is  more  certain 
to  seed  well  than  that  cut  later.  In  some  cases  they  report 
double  the  amount  of  seed  from  the  clover  which  was  cut  early. 
Considering  its  high  price,  if  there  is  any  prospect  of  greatly  in- 
creasing the  yield  of  seeds  more  experiments  are  much  needed. 
Some  were  suggested  in  the  paragraph  which  treats  of  the  agency 
of  bumble  bees  in  fertilizing  the  flowers. 

In  England  Dr.  A.  Voelcker  tried  some  different  sort  of  ma- 
nures for  this  purpose  with  results  by  no  means  satisfactory  or 
conclusive.  Probably  the  efforts  were  made  in  the  wrong  direc- 
tion, as  indicated  in  the  preceding  paragraphs. 

For  securing  the  seed,  red  clover  is  ordinarily  cut  with  a  reaper - 
which  delivers  the  clover  in  small  gavels.     In  this  way  the  clover 
is  moved  to  one  side  and  is  not  damaged  by  the  tramping  of  the 
horses. 

The  clover  is  allowed  to  lie  until  it  is  well  dried,  and  probably 
black  and  brittle.  It  may  need  turning  once  or  more  before  dry 
and  ready  to  thresh  or  draw  to  the  stack  or  the  barn.  Clover 
seed  during  the  harvesting  will  stand  a  good  deal  of  abuse  and 
not  lose  its  vitality. 

During  a  very  unfavorable  season  for  curing,  when  there  was 
much  rain,  the  writer  tested  samples  from  about  sixty  different 
farms  in  Michigan,  and  found  they  averaged  85  per  cent,  of  good 


340        RELATIVE   VALUE   OF  DARK  AND   LIGHT  SEEDS. 

seeds,  rarely  going  as  low  as  75  per  cent.,  though  one  small  lot 
went  down  to  25  per  cent.  Some  went  up  to  95  per  cent. 

Clover  is  usually  threshed  and  cleaned  with  a  machine  made 
for  the  purpose.  The  yield  runs  from  less  than  a  bushel  to  the 
acre  to  two  bushels,  a  fair  yield,  four  bushels,  a  fine  yield,  or 
even  six  bushels,  an  exceptionally  good  yield. 

Relative  Talue  of  Dark  and  Light  Colored  Seeds.— Dark 
colored,  bright  looking  seeds  are  generally  considered  the  best. 
The  results  obtained  on  testing  numerous  samples  on  different 
seasons  indicate  that  there  is  no  difference  in  favor  of  the  dark 
seeds  either  in  vitality  or  the  quality  of  the  plants  which  they 
produce.  It  is  generally  the  case  that  all  the  seeds,  or  nearly 
all,  from  one  plant  resemble  each  other  in  color  and  size.  Some 
plants  produce  yellow  seeds,  others  produce  dark  ones,  others 
produce  seeds  of  mixed  colors. 

Yariation  of  Red  Clover. — The  late  Professor  James  Buck- 
man,  of  England,  in  Jour.  Royal  Agrl.  Soc.,  p.  446,  1866,  says 
the  American  red  clover  is  a  much  larger  and  coarser  and  more 
hairy  plant  than  that  cultivated  in  England,  doubtless  due  to  a 
longer  and  warmer  summer. 

The  wild  clover,  as  early  introduced  into  Europe,  is  usually 
the  small  hairy  plant  that  we  meet  with  (in  England)  and  greatly 
different  from  that  described  by  Sinclair,  which  is  larger  and 
quite  smooth.  The  Professor  goes  on  to  say  that:  "Both when 
wild  and  when  cultivated  it  is  perhaps  as  protean  in  form  as  any 
plant  the  farmer  has  to  deal  with.  Some  are  more  perennial 
than  others ;  all  are  more  or  less  hardy,  more  or  less  productive, 
and  these  differences  have  a  high  significance.  However,  it  sel- 
dom happens  that  any  particular  type  can  be  obtained  pure, 
though  the  value  of  the  seed  varies  just  in  proportion  as  it  is  so. 

"  There  are  three  desiderata  with  regard  to  clover. 

"1st.  A  good  sort  or  sorts. 

"2d.   Pure  seed  of  the  sort. 


VARIATION  OF   RED   CLOVER.  841 

"3d.   Seed  from  a  known  and  suitable  climate." 

The  Professor  then  describes  six  of  the  leading  varieties,  none 
of  which  are  just  like  those  I  find  in  Michigan. 

Not  long  ago  our  seeds  of  red  clover  came  from  Europe,  and 
already  we  have  a  great  change  in  the  plants. 

I  have  for  some  years  past  studied  quite  carefully  in  different 
stages  of  growth,  at  different  seasons  and  on  different  soils,  many 
hundreds  of  plants.  I  have  preserved  some  of  the  plants  and 
seeds  of  a  few  of  the  most  striking. 

There  is  nearly  or  quite  a  month's  difference  in  the  time  of 
first  flowering,  Some  plants  stool  out  and  send  up  many  stalks; 
others  few.  On  hot,  dry  days  some  plants  wilt  while  others 
show  no  signs  of  wilting.  Some  plants  are  tall  and  large  or 
slender ;  others  are  short,  even  where  the  soil  seems  to  be  uni- 
form. Some  are  erect,  even  where  there  is  nothing  to  crowd 
them ;  others  spread  out  at  once,  even  where  somewhat  crowded. 
The  leaves  and  stems  of  some  plants  are  densely  pubescent ; 
others  are  nearly  smooth,  and  between  these  are  all  gradations. 
In  this  respect  the  same  plant  varies  a  little  at  different  seasons. 
The  stems  vary  much  in  length  and  number  of  branches  and  in 
the  color.  On  some  plants  the  leaves  are  dark  green ;  on  others 
light  green.  The  leaflets  often  contain  a  light  spot,  which  varies 
in  shape,  size  and  intensity.  Some  are  destitute  of  any  trace  of 
spots.  Some  leaves  are  firm,  and  a  quarter  or  more  thicker  than 
others ;  some  are  thin  and  flabby.  Some  leaflets  are  as  broad  as 
long;  others  are  elliptical — lanceolate.  The  stipules  vary  in 
shape,  color  and  position  taken. 

The  heads  of  flowers  vary  in  size  and  shape,  and  so  far  as  seen 
were  sessile,  with  an  involucre  of  two  leaves.  The  calyx  tube 
and  the  lobes  of  the  calyx  vary  in  size  and  hairiness. 

The  petals  vary  in  length,  direction  taken,  and  differ  in  color 
from  dirty  white  to  pink  and  bright  scarlet.  Varying  with  the 
season,  and  probably  with  the  plant,  the  pistils  contain  each 


342  THE   MODEL  PLANT. 

from  none  to  two,  three  or  even  four  seeds.  There  is  a  marked 
difference,  as  before  observed,  in  the  color  of  the  seeds. 

Of  some  plants  observed  I  give  the  following  brief  description : 

No.  1.  Early,  stems  purplish,  few  and  small,  erect,  quite 
hairy,  leaflets  spotted,  rather  narrow,  leaflets  of  the  involucre 
lance-elliptical. 

No.  8.  Late,  stems  few,  stout,  sprawling,  quite  smooth,  pur- 
plish, leaflets  rather  narrow,  with  scarcely  a  trace  of  a  spot. 

No.  17.  Very  late,  stems  long,  of  medium  size,  spreading, 
green,  quite  hairy ;  leaves  light  green,  spot  inconspicuous. 

No.  19.  A  seedling  of  dark  seed,  early,  stems  numerous,  large, 
tall,  erect,  smooth,  purplish,  leaflets  rather  broad,  thick,  very 
dark  green,  with  no  trace  of  a  spot ;  flowers  dark  colored. 

The  Model  Plant. — I  have  begun  a  few  experiments  in  a  very 
small  way  by  selecting  and  raising  different  races  of  red  clover. 
This  variation  in  our  fields  is  a  broad  hint  at  the  results  which 
may  be  obtained  by  care  and  study. 

For  the  Northern  States  we  need  a  red  clover  which  starts 
early,  grows  rapidly,  has  numerous  erect,  rather  stout  stems, 
which  are  not  large.  If  too  woody,  the  stems  make  coarse  fod- 
der; if  they  contain  too  little  woody  matter,  they  will  not  be 
stiff  enough  to  stand  up  well.  The  plant  should  be  rather  hairy, 
as  such  plants  usually  endure  hot,  dry  weather  best.  The  model 
plant  should  seed  freely,  and  to  aid  in  this,  if  possible,  the  tube 
of  the  flower  should  be  short  enough  to  permit  honey  bees  to 
reach  the  nectar. 

The  tongue  of  a  honey  bee  when  stretched  out  is  six  to  seven 
millimeters  in  length,  while  the  tube  of  the  corolla  of  red 
clover  is  nine  to  ten  millimeters.  It  seems  by  this  that 
there  is  a  wide  breech  to  be  gained  in  growth  of  tongue  or  shrink- 
age of  corolla  before  the  honey  bee  can  sip  all  the  nectar  from 
the  bottom  of  the  tube  of  red  clover.  The  tongue  must  elongate 
one-third  or  the  tube  of  the  flower  shorten  as  much.  The  occa- 


CLOVER   SICKNESS.  343 

sional  visits  of  honey  bees  to  the  flowers  of  red  clover  may  be 
accounted  for  by  supposing  they  seek  pollen,  or  they  seek  the 
honey  which  has  filled  a  considerable  portion  of  the  floral  tube. 
The  upper  portion  of  this  honey  can  be  reached  even  with  the 
tongue  of  the  ordinary  honey  bee. 

Clover  Sickness. — This  is  a  term  used  in  Great  Britain  to  in- 
dicate a  failure  of  the  plants  to  thrive  after  they  have  once 
started.  Many  observations  and  experiments  have  been  made 
and  much  has  been  written  on  the  topic  in  regard  to  the  cause 
and  remedies.  Except  in  a  very  few  places  in  the  older  portions 
of  the  United  States,  and  even  these  are  of  questionable  authority, 
no  trouble  of  this  nature  lias  appeared  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

Recent  investigations  by  Kutzleb  show  that  clover  sickness  is 
not  due  to  parasites,  to  lack  of  nitrogen,  to  lack  of  water,  or  to 
unfavorable  physical  properties  of  the  soil,  but  to  a  deficiency  of 
easily  soluble  potash,  especially  in  the  subsoil.  (H.  P.  Armsby 
in  Science,  p.  146,  1883.) 

It  is  not  improbable  as  our  country  grows  older  that  repeated 
crops  of  clover  may  so  deprive  the  subsoil  of  potash  that  clover 
sickness  may  become  common.  One  who  suspects  the  presence 
of  this  trouble  should  look  carefully  for  insects  or  some  fungus 
before  coming  to  a  conclusion. 

To  my  inquiry  in  reference  to  the  presence  of  clover  sickness 
in  the  State  of  New  York,  Professor  Roberts  replied  through  the 
Philadelphia  Press  as  follows:  "So  far  nothing  like  what  is 
known  in  Europe  as  '  clover  sickness '  is  present.  The  clover 
leaf  beetle,  Phytonymus  punctatus,  has  injured  a  few  fields  se- 
riously, but  its  ravages  have  been  confined  to  very  small  areas, 
sometimes  to  a  single  acre  or  two  in  a  township.  The  clover 
seed  midge,  Cecidomyia  leguminicola,  which  prevents  the  clover 
from  blossoming  and  destroys  the  seed,  is  found  in  most,  if  not 
all,  of  the  counties  of  western  New  York.  The  hay  crop  is  in- 
jured by  them  to  only  a  slight  extent. 


344  TRIFOLIUM   MEDIUM.      MAMMOTH    CLOVER. 

"The  clover  root  borer,  Cecidomyia  trifolii,  plays  terrible 
havoc  with  the  clover  the  second  year.  Much  has  been  written 
on  this  subject,  yet  few  appear  to  realize  that  their  failures,  after 
the  clover  has  been  well  established,  come  from  the  injury  done 
by  the  root  borer.  If  this  beetle  remains,  the  four- years'  course 
must  come  into  general  practice." 

HoYen. — This  is  a  term  applied  to  cattle  which  have  become 
sick  and  bloated  after  eating  too  heartily  of  clover  which  was 
fresh  and  wet.  At  such  times,  till  the  cattle  have  become  used 
to  the  feed  so  as  not  to  be  greedy,  they  should  be  turned  off  the 
clover  after  eating  for  an  hour  or  so  at  a  time. 

TRIFOLIUM    MEDIUM,    L.     MAMMOTH,     GIANT,     PEA-VINE     CLOVER, 
OR    COW    GRASS    (OF   ENGLAND). 

The  following  description  of  the  typical  form,  as  it  appears  in 
England,  is  mainly  from  Hooker's  Flora  : 

Plant  slightly  hairy,  leaflets  oblong,  obtuse,  or  acute ;  stipules 
herbaceous,  free  portion  spreading,  heads  subglobose,  terminal, 
often  shortly  peduncled,  subtended  by  opposite  leaves,  calyx- 
teeth  setaceous,  spreading  in  fruit,  lowest  a  little  longest.  June  to 
September,  perennial.  Stems  straggling,  flexuous,  often  zigzag. 
Leaflets  1-2  in.,  rather  rigid,  almost  quite  entire,  ciliate.  Heads 
1-1£  in.  diam.  Flowers  £  in.>  rose-purple.  Calyx-throat  with  a 
ring  of  hairs,  tube  10-ncrved,  glabrous,  teeth  reaching  half  way 
up  the  petals.  Pod  often  dehiscent  longitudinally.  Distributed 
in  Europe,  Siberia,  Western  Asia ;  introduced  in  North  America. 

This  clover  is  Trifolium  medium,  and  so  named  a  long  time 
ago  by  Linnaeus.  The  common  name  might  with  propriety,  be 
"medium  red  clover."  I  mention  this  fact  because  farmers 
have  lately  got  in  the  notion  of  calling  the  early  red  clover  "  me- 
dium "  clover. 

Mammoth  clover  is  quite  similar  in  appearance  to  the  early  red 
clover,  but  it  flowers  later,  with  Timothy,  is  very  often  a  peren- 


TEIFOLIUM  MEDIUM,  ETC. 


346 


Fio.  131.— Trifolium  medium,  I,.  (Mammoth  Clover,)  part  of  a  plant  and  a  lower  leaf. 

— (Sudwcrth.) 

44 


346  TRIFOLTUM  MEDIUM,   ETC. 

nial,  and  is  adapted  for  permanent  pasture ;  the  stems  are  larger, 
more  inclined  to  spread,  the  leaflets  are  narrower  and  often  des- 
titute of  a  light  spot,  the  flowers  are  bright  red  and  larger  than 
in  Trifolium  pratense,  and  form  a  less  compact  head. 

The  samples  found  at  the  Agricultural  College,  and  in  many 
other  places,  show  all  grades  of  intermediate  forms.  These  two 
species  seem  to  be  freely  hybridized. 

At  my  request,  my  friend,  A.  C.  Glidden,  of  Paw  Paw,  Mich., 
has  made  numerous  inquiries  in  reference  to  its  value  in  his  por- 
tion of  the  State,  where  it  has  been  largely  grown. 

L.  B.  Lawrence,  of  Cass  County,  who  owns  a  large  prairie 
farm,  has  grown  it  for  many  years.  He  considers  it  less  hardy 
than  the  other  species;  it  is  more  liable  to  "heave"  in  the 
spring,  and  often  grows  so  rank  as  to  kill  itself  by  the  burden  of 
stalk  on  the  surface.  He  thinks  the  roots  are  smaller  and  that 
it  feeds  on  the  surface,  and  does  not  work  in  the  subsoil  like  the 
other  species.  He  formerly  pastured  this  clover  till  the  first  of 
June,  when  he  allowed  it  to  flower  and  seed,  which  would  often 
come  off  early  enough  to  plow  for  wheat.  Recently  he  has  run 
over  the  field  with  a  mower,  clipping  the  tops  about  the  first  of 
June,  and  allowing  them  to  remain  as  a  mulch,  while  the  new 
growth  forms  seed. 

D.  Woodman,  of  Paw  Paw,  once  sowed  a  field  in  equal  divisions 
of  the  two  kinds,  and  the  mammoth  clover  furnished  double  the 
amount  of  feed  for  pasture,  as  compared  with  the  other  half  of 
the  field.  The  season  was  a  dry  one.  Others  repbrt  that  it  is 
better  than  the  early  kind  for  pastures  in  July  and  August. 

The  notion  prevails  that  the  mammoth  clover  does  not  make 
as  good  hay  as  the  other  species ;  it  is  often  coarse  and  woody. 
Another  point  should  not  be  overlooked.  They  all  agree  that 
the  mammoth  clover  is  much  the  most  productive  of  seeds.  As 
this  is  the  case,  we  may  expect  it  will  soon  become  more  com- 
mon than  it  is  at  present.  Farmers  will  select  the  large  kind  to 


TRIFOLIUM   HYBRIDUM.      ALSIKE   CLOVER.  347 

raise  seeds  to  sell,  and  many  times  this  seed  will  finally  be  pur- 
chased by  farmers  and  sown,  supposing  it  to  be  the  early  or 
round  leaved  red  clover. 

In  managing  this  plant,  it  should  be  understood  that  if  left 
without  pasturing  or  mowing  in  spring  there  will  only  be  a  small 
crop  of  seed. 

TRIFOLIUM    HYBRIDUM,-  L.    ALSIKE    CLOVER. 

Plant  glabrous,  perennial.  Stems,  branching,  1-2  ft.  high, 
ascending,  weak.  Petioles  long;  leaflets  obovate  or  oblong, 
toothed.  Stipules  rather  long,  nerves  green.  Heads  about  f  in. 
diam.,  globular,  flowers  pinkish,  pedicellate,  recurved  after  flow- 
ering ;  peduncles  2-4  in.  Calyx  white,  teeth  green ;  pod  same  as 
in  white  clover.  Found  in  Europe,  North  Africa,  West  Asia; 
introduced  into  N.  America.  Its  common  name  is  derived  from 
a  parish  in  Sweden. 

In  appearance  it  is  so  nearly  intermediate  between  red  and 
white  clover  that  Linnaeus  supposed  it  was  a  hybrid,  and  hence 
its  specific  name.  It  is  not  a  hybrid.  Alsike  likes  rather  moist 
land,  containing  some  clay.  It  is  smoother  and  more  delicate 
than  red  clover,  and  the  stems  are  weaker,  so  much  so  that  it  is 
quite  likely  to  lodge.  The  stems  remain  green  after  seeding. 
It  stands  dry  weather  well,  is  not  apt  to  winter  kill,  the  flowers 
continue  for  a  long  time  and  abound  in  nectar,  which  can  be 
reached  by  honey  bees. 

Alsike  clover  has  a  good  reputation  for  pasture  and  is  a  favor- 
ite with  bee-keepers.  It  frequently  yields  3-8  bushels  of  seed 
to  the  acre,  and  these  are  only  half  the  size  of  those  of  red  clover, 
nence  only  about  half  as  much  seed  is  sown  to  the  acre.  This  is 
produced  from  the  first  crop,  though  it  is  often  pastured  a  while 
early  in  the  season.  It  is  two  or  three  years  coming  to  full  size, 
and  does  best  for  pasture  when  sown  with  some  stout  grasses. 
The  aftermath  is  very  light. 


348  TRIFOLIUM   REPENS.      WHITE  CLOVER. 

When  ripe  it  shells  more  easily  than  red  clover,  and  is  more 
apt  to  waste,  hence  more  care  is  needed  in  the  harvesting. 

Trifolium  repens,  L.  White  or  Dutch  Clover. — A  smooth 
perennial ;  stems  creeping  and  rooting  at  the  joints.  Stipules 
small,  narrow,  accnminate;  petioles  2-4  in.,  leaflets  obovate  or 
obcordate,  obcurely  toothed,  often  with  a  light  mark  towards 
the  base.  Heads,  or  close  umbels,  1  in.  diam. ;  peduncles  3-8 
in.  Flowers  white  or  rosy,  .pedicels  reflexed  after  flowering. 
Pod  4—6  seeded.  In  pastures  of  Europe,  Russian  Asia,  N.  Africa, 
India,  N.  America,  at  the  North.  This  is  the  Shamrock  of  the 
modern  Irish. 

The  following,  from  Wm.  Gorrie,  gives  a  fair  notion  of  its  es- 
timate among  the  farmers  of  England:  "  It  has  long  been  al- 
most universally  sown  for  pastures,  but  many  consider  its  merits 
highly  over-rated ;  for  although  it  makes  a  great  display  on  fa- 
vorite soils,  yet  it  is  neither  fattening  nor  cared  for  by  stock 
when  they  have  a  sufficient  choice  of  pasturage.  No  attempt  has 
been  made  to  secure  improved  varieties." 

Below  follows  the  opinion  of  Dr.  S.  A.  Knapp,  of  Iowa,  who 
says :  "  It  nourishes  when  the  true  grasses  wither ;  it  appears  to 
defy  equally  poverty  of  soil,  cold,  excessive  moisture  or  extreme 
drought.  It  is  perennial,  which  gives  it  a  great  advantage  over 
red  clover,  and  renders  it  an  almost  necessary  substitute  where 
close  grazing  is  practiced.  It  is  extremely  hardy,  and  turns  its 
sprightly  green  leaves  to  the  lingering  snows  of  spring  and  stoutly 
resists  the  sharp  frosts  of  approaching  winter.  It  resists  drought 
with  true  clover  stubbornness,  and  thrives  in  the  slough  or  upon 
the  knoll  with  almost  equal  vigor.  It  furnishes  a  large  amount 
of  highly  nutritive  material.  It  has  more  protein  and  more  fat 
than  red  clover.  In  flesh-forming  material  it  is  nearly  20  per 
cent,  richer  than  blue  grass.  The  product  is  about  eight  tons  of 

FIG.  132.- Trifolium  hj/bridwm,  L.  (Alsike  Clover,)  a,  part  of  a  plant;  e,  a  flower  en- 
larged.-(Sudworth.) 


350 


TRIFOL1UM   RKPENS. 


Fia.133.— Ztf/utiumrepefMt,  L,.  (White  ur  IJutch  Clover,)  a,  part  of  plant  with  e, 
young  head ;  /,  older  head  where  part  of  the  flowers  have  turned  down ;  g,  old  head 
where  all  the  flowers  have  turned  down.— (Sud  worth.) 


TRIFOLIUM   INCARNATUM.  351 

green  fodder  to  the  acre  upon  rich  ^prairie  soil.  The  flower  is 
excellent  during  most  of  the  season,  and  the  cattle  eat  it  with 
avidity,  except  during  the  months  of  July  and  a  portion  of  Au- 
gust. Almost  the  sole  objection  urged  to  white  clover  is  its  ef- 
fect on  horses  during  the  maturing  of  the  seed."  It  makes  them 
"slobber." 

Its  dwarf  character  makes  it  unfit  for  the  scythe. 

If  the  soil  is  suitable  it  spreads  so  rapidly  that  very  little  seed 
is  necessarv. 

White  clover  is  a  fickle  plant,  coming  and  going  with  the  va- 
rying seasons.  It  often  burns  out  in  hot  weather.  An  old  hard 
road,  once  abandoned,  is  likely  to  send  up  white  clover  in  ad- 
vance of  the  grasses. 

It  is  a  well  known  and  highly  prized  bee  plant,  although  the 
season  is  often  a  short  one,  especially  if  hot,  dry  weather  comes 
on  early. 

White  clover  is  often  sown  with  some  of  the  finer  grasses  for 
lawns. 

Trifolium  incarnatum,  L.  Crimson  or  Italian  Clover, 
French  Clover. — A  soft,  erect,  hairy  annual  1-2  ft.  high.  Sti- 
pules broad,  with  short,  broad  leafy  tips ;  leaflets  broad,  obovate, 
or  nearly  round.  Heads  1-2  in.,  oblong  or  cylindrical.  Flowers 
-J  in.  Calyx  soft,  hairy,  teeth  narrow,  nearly  equal.  Petals 
bright  crimson  or  scarlet  or  a  pale  cream  color.  Found  in  south- 
ern Europe,  and  cultivated  in  France,  Germany,  Belgium. 

When  in  flower  this  is  a  beautiful  plant.  As  it  is  an  annual 
belonging  to  a  warm  climate,  it  does  not  seem  so  popular  at  the 
North  as  red  clover. 

One  writer,  a  farmer  in  Virginia,  speaks  highly  of  crimson  clo- 
ver to  sow  in  autumn  alone,  or  with  Italian  rye-grass,  for  cutting 
the  next  May.  He  says  it  is  very  productive,  and  is  an  excellent 
clover  for  one  crop,  or  rather  for  one  mowing,  which  should  be 
taken  early,  as  it  becomes  coarse  and  woody  if  allowed  to  mature. 


£52  MEDICAGO. 

After  repeated  trials  oil  a  small  scale  the  writer  thinks  it  of 
no  value  for  Michigan.  Prof.  Gulley  is  of  the  same  opinion  in 
reference  to  Mississippi. 

Several  other  species  of  true  clovers  are  often  met  with  and 
sometimes  cultivated  with  more  or  less  success,  but  we  do  not 
intend  to  treat  the  subject  exhaustively. 

MEDICAGO,    L.    MEDICK. 

Herbs  with  pinnately  3-f  oliolate  leaves ;  leaflets  usually  toothed ; 
stipules  adhering  to  the  peliote.  Flowers  small,  in  short  spikes, 
or  loose  heads,  violet  or  yelloMr.  Calyx-teeth  5,  nearly  equal, 
keel  obtuse,  shorter  than  the  wings.  Stamens  diadelphous,  the 
upper  one  free ;  anthers  uniform.  Pod  small,  with  few  seeds, 
very  much  curved,  or  spirally  twisted,  indehiscent,  often  spiny. 

Found  in  Europe,  W.  Asia,  N.  Africa,  introduced  into  N. 
America. 

M.  sativa,  L.  Lucerne,  Alfalfa,  Purple  Medick,  Chilian 
CloYer,  French  Clover,  Spanish  Trefoil. — An  upright,  deeply 
rooting,  smooth  perennial,  1-2|  ft.  high.  Leaflets  obovate-ob- 
long,  toothed,  tip  notched.  Flowers  in  a  short  dense  raceme, 
blue  or  purple;  peduncles  longer  than  the  leaves.  Pod  £  in. 
diam.,  spirally  twisted.  Origin  not  certainly  known ;  now  culti- 
vated in  Southern  Europe  and  America. 

The  common  French  name  is  Lucerne  ;  the  Spanish  name  for 
the  same  species  is  Alfalfa,  a  name  which  followed  the  plant 
into  South  America  and  thence  to  Mexico  and  California  and 
the  dry  countries  this  side. 

It  was  known  and  prized  by  the  Greeks  and  Komans  2,500 
years  ago,  and  was  spoken  of  by  Columella  as  the  most  valuable 
plant  for  fodder. 

To  begin  with,  there  are  a  few  things  which  the  inquirer 
should  not  fail  to  keep  constantly  in  mind.  Lucerne  is  "a  child 
of  the  sun ;  "  likes  a  rich  loam  or  sand  with  a  deep  porous  sub- 


MLDICAGO  SATIVA.      LUCERNE. 


353 


PIG.  134.— MedivaQO  saliva,  L.  (Lucerne,  Alfalfa,)  a,  part  of  the  top  of  a  plant;  7>, 
flower  enlarged  ;  c,  young  pods. — (Sadworth.) 

45 


354  LUCERNE.     ALFALFA. 

soil ;  utterly  refuses  to  thrive  on  a  compact  clay  subsoil,  or  in  a 
hard  bottom  of  any  kind ;  while  young  it  is  a  weak  plant  and  a 
poor  fighter ;  requires  two  or  three  years  to  become  well  "rooted  " 
and  established;  it  should  be  sown  after  settled  weather  has 
come  in  the  spring,  without  another  crop,  on  well  prepared  land. 
Sow  in  drills  about  eight  inches  apart,  and  hoe  or  cultivate  once 
or  more  to  keep  the  weeds  and  other  plants  in  check.  It'  is  not 

often  well  worth  while"  to  use  Alfalfa  where  the  land  is  to  be 
i 

plowed  up  every  three  to  five  years.  This  plant  is  a  perennial, 
and  on  suitable  soil  can  be  relied  on  to  produce  good  crops  for 
many  years  in  succession.  It  stands  dry  weather  admirably;  is 
very  nutritious ;  like  other  legumes,  it  is  a  collector  of  nitrogen. 
It  must  be  mown  when  young  and  just  beginning  to  flower,  for 
the  stems  quickly  become  woody  and  rapidly  deteriorate  in  value. 
This  is  a  favorite  for  irrigated  meadows  and  soiling,  and  is  fre- 
quently cut  three  to  eight  times  in  the  year,  yielding  enormous 
crops  of  valuable  fodder  for  all  kinds  of  live  stock  except  in  iso- 
lated places.  Alfalfa  or  Lucerne  is  not  a  favorite  north  of  Ken- 
tucky. Perhaps  it  is  because  clovers  and  the  grasses  thrive  so  well, 
and  these  can  be  sown  broadcast  and  are  often  started  with  another 
crop.  Again,  the  farmer  looks  with  distrust  on  a  plant  which 
is  so  slow  starting  and  needs  weeding  to  keep  it  growing.  Al- 
falfa endures  extreme  dry  weather  much  better  than  the  true 
clovers  and  grasses. 

This  is  easily  accounted  for,  when  we  understand  that  the 
roots  become  woody,  as  large  as  a  pipe  stem  to  half  an  inch  or 
more  in  diameter,  and  have  been  known  to  extend  ten  or  twelve, 
or  even  twenty  feet  below  the  surface. 

An  old,  thick  field  of  Lucerne  is  very  difficult  to  turn  over 
with  the  plow. 

Those  who  have  tried  imported  seed  of  Lucerne  with  seed  of 
Alfalfa  from  California  claim  that  plants  of  the  latter  will  not 
endure  the  cold  as  well,  but  will  stand  heat  and  drought  better. 


LUCERNE.     ALFALFA.  355 

Fifteen  to  twenty  pounds,  and  even  more,  are  usually  sown  to 
the  acre. 

Honey  bees  seem  to  extract  the  honey  without  any  trouble. 

Dr.  H.  P.  Armsby  states  that  "  Lucerne  is  even  richer  in  pro- 
tein than  red  clover,  but  it  is  inclined  to  a  more  rapid  formation 
of  woody  fiber  after  the  flowers  appear.  It  demands  early  cut- 
ting even  more  than  olover.  On  account  of  its  excess  of  protein 
it  should  be  fed  in  connection  with  some  feeding-stuff  poor  in 
protein,  such  as  roots  or  straw,  to  realize  the  best  effect." 

Mr.  Gorrie,  of  England,  reports,  that  when  properly  managed 
the  quantity  of  cattle  which  can  be  kept  in  good  condition  on 
an  acre  of  Lucerne,  during  the  whole  season,  exceeds  belief.  It 
is  no  sooner  mown  than  it  pushes  out  fresh  shoots. 

Prof.  J.  R.  Page,  of  Virginia,  considers  it  one  of  the  most  cer- 
tain as  well  as  one  of  the  best  crops  the  farmer  can  cultivate  for 
soiling  purposes.  He  finds  no  difficulty  in  getting  a  good  stand 
and  a  profitable  return,  and  recommends  it  very  highly.  It  is 
cured  in  the  same  way  as  clover. 

At  the  Agricultural  College  in  Central  Michigan,  Lucerne,  when 
hoed  and  properly  started  for  the  first  year  has  not  killed  out 
during  severe  winters,  while  it  beats  everything  to  endure  pro- 
longed drought.  It  is  not  suitable  to  mix  with  clover,  as  the 
latter  overtops  and  crowds  the  Lucerne.  I  can  report  no  system- 
atic attempt  in  Michigan  to  establish,  mow  and  feed  crops  of 
lucerne. 

In  1883  Prof.  E.  M.  Shelton,  of  Kansas,  said:  "We  have  no 
hesitation  in  saying  that,  all  things  considered,  it  is  a  most  valu- 
able clover,  especially  for  the  western  and  southwestern  sections 
of  the  state.  Along  the  Arkansas  river,  where  irrigation  is  prac- 
ticed, it  has  proved  a  most  invaluable  forage  plant.  More  ac- 
counts come  to  us  of  failure  with  Alfalfa  than  with  any  other 
clover  or  grass,  and  this  is  because  of  the  difficulty  in  starting 
the  plants  and  in  selecting  and  preparing  the  soil  properly.  It 


366  LUCERNE.     ALFALFA. 

must  not  be  sown  with  another  crop,  neither  mowed  nor  pastured 
during  the  first  year.  The  dangers  which  threaten  it  most  are 
the  common  mole  and  pocket-gopher;  the  latter  burrowing 
among  and  cutting  the  roots,  has  destroyed  several  acres  on  the 
college  farm.  We  have  cut  three  and  even  four  large  crops 
from  the  same  ground  in  one  season." 

Early  in  1885  Prof.  Shelton  states  in  the  Rural  New  Yorker 
that  Alfalfa  has  proved  with  us  the  most  useful  of  all  clovers  for 
the  purpose  of  pasturage.  It  endures  uninjured,  close  cropping, 
all  kinds  of  stock  consume  it  greedily,  and  it  has  never  winter 
killed.  It  requires  much  field  room  in  curing,  and  soon  spoils 
with  light  rains.  For  hog  pastures  I  know  of  no  other  plant  so 
valuable. 

Prof.  A.  E.  Blount  reports  for  Colorado:  •'  J.  S.,  near  the 
college,  keeps  large  herds  of  sheep,  some. cattle,  horses  and  hogs. 
When  fed  on  Alfalfa  cattle  grow  faster ;  cows  give  more  and  bet- 
ter milk ;  horses  are  more  healthy  and  do  more  work  with  a 
fourth  of  the  grain ;  sheep  make  better  mutton  and  lose  less 
wool ;  and  hogs  fatten,  almost  ready  for  market,  without  any 
grain.  He  cuts  his  crops  three  times,  averaging  about  two  tons 
to  the  cutting.  By  letting  the  first  crop  grow  until  July  he 
raises  from  5  to  10  bushels  of  seed  per  acre." 

He  says  he  has  samples  four  feet  long,  grown  in  thirty  days.  It 
does  not  spread  except  by  seeding.  It  is  too  tender  to  sow  in  the 
fall,  but  should  be  sown  in  spring  after  the  frost  has  gone.  Har- 
row it  in  with  or  without  a  crop. 

President  Ingersoll,  of  the  same  place,  told  me  that  Alfalfa 
was  the  only  forage  plant  that  would  grow  at  their  place  and 
keep  green  without  irrigation.  It  is  a  favorite  forage  crop  in 
Colorado  and  its  cultivation  is  extending  very  rapidly. 

For  Mississippi  and  vicinity  Prof.  D.  L.  Phares  considers  Lu- 
cerne very  valuable.  It  sometimes  gets  two  feet  high  by  the 
middle  of  February.  He  knows  some  plots  of  it  now  in  fine  con- 


MEDICAGO  LUPULINA— MEDICAGO  MACULATA.  857 

dition  that  are  known  to  have  been  growing  for  over  thirty-five 
years,  without  any  marks  of  decay. 

Prof.  F.  A.  Gulley,  of  the  same  state,  thinks  it  is  too  difficult  • 
to  get  it  well  started. 

The  late  C.  W.  Howard,  of  Georgia,  believed,  as  a  forage  plant 
at  the  South,  Lucerne  is  very  far  superior  to  all  others.  For 
feeding  it  should  be  cut  a  day  in  advance  and  used  in  a  wilted 
state.  It  must  never  be  pastured,  as  live  stock  in  that  climate 
bite  out  the  crowns  of  the  plants  and  kill  them.  It  is  ready  to 
cut  a  month  in  advance  of  red  clover. 

Medicago  lupulina,  L.  Black  Medick,  Nonesuch. — A  pro- 
cumbent, branching,  pubescent  annual  or  biennial.  Leaflets 
obovate,  toothed  at  the  apex.  Peduncles  longer  than  the  leaves 
bearing  ovoid  heads  of  small  yellow  flowers.  Pods  small,  one- 
seoded,  black  when  ripe,  kidney-shaped.  Found  in  Europe,  N. 
Africa,  West  Asia  to  India ;  introduced  in  Js".  America. 

On  rich  land  it  often  affords  considerable  pasture,  reminding 
one  of  white  clover  in  its  habit.  It  is  not  likely  worth  cultivat- 
ing in  this  country  because  we  have  something  better. 

Medicago  maculata,  Willd.  Spotted  Medick,  Burr  Cloyer, 
California  Clover.— A  procumbent  or  spreading,  branching  an- 
nual. Leaflets  obovate  or  obcordate,  often  with  a  black  central 
spot,  minutely  toothed.  Peduncle*  3-5  flowered ;  flowers  yel- 
low. Pod  £  in.  broad,  making  3-5  coils,  quite  compact,  with  a 
double  row  of  long,  curved  spines.  Found  in  Europe,  N.  Africa ; 
introduced  in  X.  America.  The  pod  makes  something  like  a 
burr,  so  much  so  that  it  adheres  to  wool.  It  is  too  tender  and 
short  lived  to  be  of  value  at  the  North,  but  has  some  good  words 
from  people  of  the  South. 

Prof.  D.  L.  Phares,  of  Mississippi,  considers  it  a  valuable 
plant.  He  has  grown  it  about  thirty-five  years,  and  says  it  fur- 
nishes good  grazing  from  February  till  April  or  May.  Cattle  do 
not  incline  to  eat  it  at  first,  but  they  learn,  and  finallv  acquire  a 


358    MEDICAGO  DENTICULATA— MELILOTUS,   TOURNEFORT. 

great  fondness  for  it.  It  seeds  freely  every  year.  Crab  grass 
occupies  the  ground  from  June  to  October  after  the  Medick  has 
seeded. 

Medicago  denticulata,  Willd.  Burr-Clover. — This  annual 
much  resembles  the  last  and  is  often  confounded  with  it.  The 
pods  are  loosely  spiral  and  deeply  reticulated. 

A  writer  in  the  American  Agriculturist  for  1878  speaks  highly 
of  the  plant. 

Burr-Clover  grows  wild  all  over  the  plains  and  foot-hills,  and 
affords  much  pasture.  Even  the  burrs  grow  in  such  profusion 
that  they  afford  a  good  supply  of  dry  concentrated  food.  They 
collect,  by  force  of  the  wind,  in  the  hollows  of  the  ground.  It 
is  tenacious  of  life  and  will  bear  close  feeding. 

MELILOTUS,    TOURNEFORT.     MELILOT. 

Annual  or  biennial,  fragrant  when  bruised  or  in  drying. 
Leaves  pinnately  3-foliolate,  nerves  ending  in  teeth ;  stipules 
slightly  adhering  to  the  petiole,  often  cut.  Flowers  small,  yel- 
low or  white,  in  long,  loose  axillary  racemes.  Calyx-teeth  5, 
nearly  equal.  Petals  deciduous ;  keel  shorter  than  the  wings, 
obtuse.  Anthers  uniform.  Pod  with  one  or  few  seeds,  small, 
straight,  thick,  indehiscent.  Plants  abound  in  an  etherial  oi^ 
(cumarin)  rendering  them  objectionable  to  stock.  Warm  and 
temperate  regions  of  the  old  world. 

Melilotus  officinalis,  Willd.  Yellow  Melilot,  Sweet  Clover. 
— This  '  -,  an  annual  or  biennial  with  yellow  flowers,  apparently 
of  little  importance  except  for  bees. 

Melilotus  alba,  Lam.  White  Melilot,  JBokara  Clover, 
Sweet  Clover. — An  erect,  branching,  woody,  annual  or  biennial 
2-6  or  8  ft.  high.  Leaflets  truncate.  Flowers  small,  white,  in 
long  racemes.  Pods  black  when  ripe. 

FIG.  135.— Medicago  lupulina,  L,  (Black  Medick.)  Portion  of  a  plant  in  flower  and 
in  fruit,  natural  size.— (IT.  S.  Agrl.  Kept.) 


Fio.  135. 


360  LUPINUS— ULEX— ONOBRYCHIS. 

Found  with  the  last.  At  the  North  it  does  not  seem  to  be 
eaten  by  live  stock  when  green,  but  they  will  eat  a  little  when 
cured  with  other  forage  plants.  Bees  find  it  valuable  for  the 
nectar  which  is  abundant  during  the  heat  of  summer.  Prof. 
Phares  speaks  of  this  as  cultivated  for  forage.  As  it  is  a  legum- 
inous plant  and  a  near  relative  of  red  clover,  and  very  large, 
it  has  been  mentioned  as  quite  suitable  for  green  manuring. 

L  u  pi  n  us,  Tourn.  Lupine.— Of  this  genus  there  are  several 
species,  some  of  which  have  proved  valuable  in  the  old  world, 
but  I  cannot  learn  that  they  are  as  valuable  as  some  other  forage 
plants  in  any  portion  of  the  United  States. 

Dr.  H.  P.  Armsby  says:  "The  yellow  lupine,  when  cut  just  at 
the  end  of  flowering,  is  the  most  highly  nitrogenous  of  all  coarse 
fodders." 

Of  domestic  animals  sheep  only  eat  lupines  well  on  account 
of  their  bitter  taste. 

In  Central  Michigan,  at  any  rate,  several  varieties,  after  nu- 
merous trials,  have  uniformly  made  a  slow,  sickly  growth.  Sim- 
ilar trials  have  been  reported  from  Georgia,  Mississippi  and 
other  states. 

Ulex,  L.  Furze,  TJlim,  Worse.  —  Much-branched,  thorny 
shrubs.  Leaves  prickly.  Flowers  yellow.  Found  in  regions  all 
about  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Often  abundant  in  England, 
Wales  and  Ireland.  When  bruised  or  wilted  it  is  eaten  by  stock. 
Perhaps  we  might  do  the  same  with  thistles.  Like  lupines, 
above  mentioned,  it  is  apparently  of  no  value  in  the  United 
States. 

Onobrychis,  Tourn.  Sainfoin. — To  this  genus  belongs  one 
species  which  is  much  cultivated  in  parts  of  the  continent  of 
Europe  and  in  Great  Britain.  In  France  this  leguminous  plant 
is  much  grown  to  improve  poor,  hungry  land,  and  will  last  4  to 

FIG.  136.—  Melilotusalba,  Lam.  Portion  of  a  plant  in  flower  and  fruit,  natural  size.— 
<U.  S.  Agrl.  Dept.) 


FIG.  136. 


362  VICIA— PISUM. 

7  years  in  succession.  It  is  employed  for  soiling,  for  pasture,  or 
made  into  hay  after  the  manner  of  red  clover.  The  seed  is  sold 
in  two  forms,  that  covered  with  the  short,  wrinkled  pod,  and 
that  which  has  been  separated  from  the  pod. 

In  England  it  is  considered  A  very  suitable  forage  plant  for  cal- 
careous soils. 

Although  an  old  plant,  and  so  well  and  favorably  known  in 
Europe,  I  cannot  learn  that  it  has  met  with  even  moderate  suc- 
cess in  any  portion  of  this  country.  The  seed  has  been  widely 
distributed  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  In  Central 
Michigan  we  have  not  been  able,  even  with  the  best  of  care,  to 
raise  respectable  samples. 

Yicia,  L.  Vetch,  Tare.— Of  this  genus  of  legumes  there  are 
quite  a  number  of  species  native  to  this  country,  and  manv  in 
Europe.  Like  the  last  mentioned,  sainfoin,  it  has  had  repeated 
trials  in  various  portions  of  the  United  States,  and  yet  we  do 
not  know  that  it  has  really  succeeded  anywhere.  To  those  not 
familiar  with  vetches,  it  may  be  enough  to  say  in  this  connection 
that  they  are  much  like  peas,  with  slender  leaflets  and  small 
stalks,  flowers  and  seeds. 

A  writer  in  Morton's  Cyclopedia  says:  "Of  the  artificial 
grasses  it  is  next  to  clover  in  value.  Sheep  fatten  faster  upon 
this  than  any  other  herbage  ;  horses  improve  more  rapidly  upon 
it  than  on  clovers  or  the  grasses;  horned  cattle  thrive  surpris- 
ingly upon  this  fodder ;  cows  yield  more  butter  from  the  tare 
than  from  any  other  provender ;  pigs  voraciously  consume  and 
prosper  upon  it.  They  may  be  cut  twice  a  year,  and  are  much 
used  for  soiling.  In  quality  they  much  resemble  lucerne.  At 
Lansing,  Michigan,  they  make  a  weak  growth,  and  will  not  en- 
dure the  hot,  dry  weather.  It  is  not  improbable  that  some  of 
our  native  vetches  could  be  improved  and  adapted  to  cultivation. 

Pisum,  L.,  Pea. — To  this  small  genus  of  two  species,  belong 
the  numerous  races  of  cultivated  field  and  garden  peas.  They 


DOLICHOS.      COW   PEA.  363 

thrive  in  cool,  moist,  temperate  regions.  Like  other  legumes, 
they  draw  much  from  the  air  and  subsoil,  and  are  most  excellent 
crops  to  alternate  with  wheat  and  the  true  forage  grasses.  They 
like  moist  loamy  soil,  but  this  should  not  be  in  the  highest  con- 
dition, else  the  plants  "run  too  much  to  vines."  at  the  expense 
of  a  good  crop  of  seeds. 

From  1^  to  4  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre  is  sown  broadcast  or 
in  drills,  yielding  15  to  25  bushels  of  seed,  which  is  a  very  nu- 
tritious food  for  swine  and  sheep. 

The  greatest  enemies  to  this  crop  are  the  pea  weevil  or  "  bug" 
and  mildew. 

Of  "buggy"  peas  only  about  one-fourth  per  cent  will  usuallv 
grow,  and  these  produce  feeble  plants.  Seed  can  be  obtained 
from  the  North,  where  the  bugs  are  not  troublesome,  and  the 
young  crop  can  be  fed  out  bugs  and  all. 

The  weevil  can  be  killed  when  young,  by  putting  the  peas  as 
soon  as  threshed  in  a  tight  box  with  some  bisulphide  of  carbon. 
There  is  some  difference  in  varieties,  but  hot,  dry  weather  is  quite 
sure  to  favor  the  development  of  mildew,  which  weakens  and 
often  prevents  the  growth  of  the  plants  or  the  production  of  a 
good  crop  of  seeds.  In  favorable  localities  enough  attention  is 
not  paid  to  this  crop,  both  for  feeding  and  to  precede  a  crop  of 
wheat. 

DOLICHOS,   L.    COW  PEA. 

Calyx  campanulate,  lobes  or  teeth  short,  often  obtuse,  the  two 
upper  more  or  less  united.  The  banner  rounded,  with  inflexed 
appendages  at  the  base ;  the  wings  falcate-obovate  adhering  to 
the  Tcoel,  which  is  incurved  and  often  beaked,  but  not  spiral 
The  odd  stamen  free  from  the  banner.  Anthers  uniform. 
Ovary  subsessile,  many  ovulcd ;  style  curved,  barbed,  or  with  a 
pencil  of  hairs  below  the  terminal  stigma.  Pod  shaped  like  a 
scymetar,  falcate,  or  linear,  compressed,  2-valved,  often  thickened 


364  DOLICHOS  CHINENSIS.     COW  PEA. 

at  the  sutures ;  valves  flat  or  convex.  Seeds  thick  or  compressed, 
hilum  short  or  long,  covered  or  naked.  Plants  herbaceous  or 
shrubby,  climbing,  erect,  or  prostrate.  Leaves  pinnate,  3-folio- 
late,  stipellate.  Stipules  small.  Flowers  violet,  flesh  colored, 
yellow  or  white.  Solitary  or  clustered  in  the  axiles.  About  20 
species,  found  in  the  cooler  parts  of  Africa,  in  Asia,  Australia, 
and  America. 

Dolichos  Chin  en  sis,  L.  Cow  Pea,  Bush  Pea,  Chinese  Pea. 
Leaflets  vary  much  in  shape,  and  are  oval,  broadly  ovoid,  or 
rhomboid.  Flowers  few  at  the  end  of  the  peduncle.  Pods  3-8 
in.  long,  mostly  straight,  2,  3,  or  4  to  a  stalk.  Seeds  black,  white, 
red,  cream  colored,  purple,  or  spotted.  The  style  of  foliage, 
absence  of  tendrils,  shape  of  seed,  and  the  raising  of  the  seed 
leaves  above  the  ground  in  germination,  all  indicate  that  it  is 
more  nearly  related  to  the  bean  than  the  common  pea. 

It  has  been  cultivated  in  China  from  remote  antiquity,  and  is 
a  favorite  forage  crop  in  the  Southern  States,  where  it  takes  the 
place  of  red  clover  at  the  North. 

There  are  many  varieties  in  cultivation  which  differ  much  in 
foliage,  size  of  plant,  size,  color  and  shape  and  yield  of  seeds. 

Some  are  quite  bushy  and  spread  into  a  tangled  mass.  Even 
in  Central  Michigan  some  of  these  peas  make  a  rank  growth, 
completely  covering  the. ground  two  feet  and  a  half  high. 

At  the  North,  horses  refuse  to  eat  it,  but  at  the  South,  prob- 
ably from  "education,"  all  grazing  domestic  animals  are  very 
fond  of  cow  peas,  either  fresh  or  dried. 

The  following  notes  are  mainly  gleaned  from  an  article  by  P. 
J.  Berckmans,  of  Georgia,  as  found  in  the  American  Agricultu- 
rist for  1876 : 

Almost  any  land  will  grow  the  cow  pea.  though  the  "Clay/' 
"Red"  and  "Black"  succeed  better  on  poor  land  than  the 
"  Lady  "  or  "  Crowder  "  varieties. 

Spring  crops  are  sown  in  April,  and  fall  crops  after  taking  off 


DOLICHOS  CHINENSIS.      COW  PEA,  365 

wheat  or  oats.  From  four  to  six  pecks  per  acre  are  sown  broad- 
cast, the  larger  amount  on  poor  soil.  On  good  soils  two  crops 
of  forage  are  often  cut  from  one  sowing,  provided  the  season  is 
favorable.  The  crop  is  sometimes  plowed  under.  As  with 
young  clover,  so  plaster  is  sown  on  cow  peas. 

All  the  plain  or  semi-colored  varieties  are  of  a  spreading  na- 
ture and  are  best  suited  for  forage.  The  "  Ked,"  "  Clay  "  and 
"  Black,"  of  the  plain  kinds,  and  the  "'  Whippoorwill,"  of  the 
semi-colored,  are  most  esteemed.  The  "Bed  Ripper,"  or 
"Tory  "  may  be  sown  in  fall  if  preferred. 

The  speckled  varieties  are  usually  bushy  in  growth,  and  unfit 
for  forage.  They  are  raised  for  market  and  the  table. 

The  "Lady  Pea"  and  "  White  Table  "  are  used  for  culinary 
purposes,  sometimes  for  snaps,  or  shelled  in  the  green  state; 
when  dry  they  are  very  desirable  for  soup,  or  they  may  be  baked 
the  same  as  the  white  bean. 

The  vines  are  fit  to  cut  for  fodder  when  the  pods  begin  to  turn 
yellow.  The  vines  often  lodge  badly,  and  are  usually  cut  with 
a  scythe.  A  few  grains  of  corn  mixed  in  with  the  seed  gives 
some  stalks  for  support. 

The  main  difficulty  in  curing  pea  hay  is  to  retain  the  leaves  on 
the  stalks ;  to  ensure  which  they  must  be  handled  very  little. 
The  wilted  vines  may  be  loosely  piled  and  remain  so  for  two  or 
three  weeks  till  cured  and  ready  for  storing. 

On  good  land,  and  good  culture,  two  tons  of  forage  per  acre 
may  be  expected,  and  sometimes  two  cuttings  in  a  year,  with  a 
yield  of  two  tons  at  each  cutting.  The  yield  of  seed  varies  from 
30  to  40'bushels  per  acre,  or  more  commonly  10  bushels.  The 
latter  is  likely  to  be  the  yield  when  sown  in  rows  in  corn  fields. 

For  feeding  stock,  well  cured  cow  pea  hay  is  more  nutritious 
than  any  hay  produced  from  grasses,  millet,  or  other  plants. 

When  the  pods  are  left  until  they  are  filled  the  value  of  the 
food  is  much  increased.  When  fed  upon  such  fodder,  horses 


366  LESPEDEZA  SfRIATA.      JAPAN  CLOVER. 

and  mules  should  receive  less  corn  or  oats  than  when  fed  on  any 
other  provender.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  the  peas  are 
often  troubled  with  pea  weevil  or  "bug."  To  prevent  this 
Prof.  Phares  lets  them  remain  in  the  pod  till  ready  to  use,  or 
when  dry,  then  thresh  them  and  mix  with  road  dust. 

With  reference  to  the  cow  pea  for  Mississippi,  Professor  Gul- 
ley  reports  as  follows:  " For  hay  and  for  plowing  in  to  fertilize 
the  land,  we  sow  broadcast  a  bushel  to  a  bushel  and  a  half  to  the 
acre,  harrow  in  and  cut  with  a  mower  as  we  would  clover.  Black 
and  red  peas  make  more  vines  and  will  stand  wet  weather  with- 
out rotting,  when  speckled  peas  will  be  entirely  spoiled.  I  sow 
the  black  and  red  exclusively,  cut  for  hay,  feed  off  with  stock  or 
leave  them  to  rot  on  the  ground  for  manure.  For  seed  we  sow 
in  drills  and  cultivate  once  or  twice.  Peas  are  a  slow  crop  to 
gather,  as  they  do  not  ripen  evenly.  I  consider  this  crop  one  of 
the  most  valuable  for  hay  or  ensilage  or  for  restoring  the  fer- 
tilitv  of  the  soil.  It  stands  first." 

Lespedeza  striata,  Japan  Cloyer. — This  is  a  low  perennial 
herb,  with  small  trifoliolate  leaves  and  very  small  flowers,  pro- 
ducing a  small,  flattish,  indehiscent  one-seeded  pod.  The  seeds 
to  this  were  accidentally  brought  to  South  Carolina  about  1849, 
probably  in  connection  with  importations  of  tea  from  China.  It 
has  spread  continually  and  quite  rapidly  over  the  South,  and  has 
quite  tenaciously  held  its  own,  even  crowding  Bermuda  grass. 

The  writer  knows  little  of  this  plant,  and  ventures  to  quote 
some,  very  conflicting  opinions  as  to  its  value.  Several  writers 
speak  of  it  as  very  suitable  for  poor  soils  for  grazing  in  dry,  hot 
weather.  The  stems  spread  close  to  the  ground,  seldom  grow- 
ing over  a  foot  high.  It  is  quite  firm  and  hard,  and  at  first  not 
a  favorite  with  stock.  They  learn  to  eat  and  thrive  on  it  be- 
cause of  its  nutritive  qualities,  which  chemical  analysis  makes 

Fro.  137.— Lespedeza  gtriata.    (Japan  Clover.)    Part  of  a  plant.— (U.  S.  Agrl.  Kept.) 


368  LESPEDEZA  STRIATA.      JAPAN   CLOVER. 

quite  remarkable.  The  plant  freely  produces  small  seeds,  and  it 
is  hard  to  exterminate. 

Henry  Stewart,  in  the  Country  Gentleman  for  January,  1886, 
says:  "I  assert  emphatically  that  unless  cattle  and  pigs  are 
starved  to  it,  they  will  not  eat  the  Japan  clover,  or  any  kind  of 
Lespedeza.  A  good  deal  has  been  written  in  favor  of  this  plant. 
In  a  few  places  it  may  be  of  some  service.  This  statement  is 
given  to  prevent  your  readers  from  being  fooled  into  buying  the 
seed  and  trying  to  grow  it  in  any  place  north  of  Virginia." 

Prof.  F.  A.  Gulley,  of  Mississippi,  says:  "For  the  South, 
Japan  clover  is,  without  exception,  the  most  valuable  plant  that 
grows.  After  once  started  it  grows  spontaneously,  except  on 
lime  land.  It  keeps  hills  fiom  washing,  even  coming  in  to  fill 
the  'washes.' 

"It  can  be  killed  by  plowing  for  one  year.  On  good  land  it 
grows  from  12  to  24  inches  high,  cuts  a  good  crop  of  hay,  equal 
to  first-class  Timothy.  For  pasture  from  May  15th  to  the  first 
frost  it  is  as  good  as  anything  we  have  except  Bermuda  grass^ 
and  equal  to  the  best  pastures  at  the  North.  It  will  grow  when 
blue  grass  and  the  clovers  fail  entirely.  It  stands  dry  weather 
admirably,  and  on  some  soils  will  even  choke  out  Bermuda.  It 
is  our  principal  pasture  during  summer."1 

Prickly  or  common  Comfrey,  Barage,  and  numerous  other 
plants,  have  been  occasionally  highly  recommended  as  excellent 
forage  plants,  but  they  have  not  won  very  general  favor. 

It  is  very  probable,  especially  for  the  South  and  the  dryer 
portions  of  our  country,  that  we  shall  yet  find  some  new  forage 
plants  which  will  in  some  respects  surpass  any  that  we  now  cul- 
tivate. 


MICE  AND  SHREWS— MOLES— GOPHERS— WOODCHUCKS.   369 

CHAPTER    XVI. 
THE   ENEMIES   OF   GRASSES   AND   CLOVERS. 

Mice  and  Shrews. — These  small  animals  often  damage  mead- 
ows by  eating  some  of  the  stems  and  larger  roots  of  grasses  and 
clovers,  especially  the  thickened  portions  stored  with  starch  near 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  They  could  be  trapped  if  too  trouble- 
some, or  caught  by  cats  and  dogs,  but  it  has  been  shown  that 
they  are  not  an  unmixed  evil,  as  they  build  nests  of  old  stems 
and  leaves,  which,  when  deserted,  are  the  favorite  abodes  of 
bumble  bees ;  and  these  should  be  encouraged,  because  they  help 
fertilize  the  flowers  of  red.  clover,  and  thus  increase  the  yield 
of  seeds,  which  are  very  valuable. 

Moles. — In  permanent  pastures  or  meadows  where  the  land  is 
dry  and  sandy,  moles  sometimes  become  very  troublesome,  rais- 
ing large  numbers  of  unsightly  mounds,  which  are  a  great  an- 
noyance to  the  mowers.  Xo  doubt  the  moles  eat  some  worms, 
large  numbers  of  white  grubs  and  qthe*r  insects,  some  of  which 
feed  on  the  roots  of  grasses  and  clovers,  but  we  know  from  ex- 
periments that  moles  will  eat  vegetation  in  considerable  quan- 
tities. We  should  rather  run  the  risk  of  dispensing  with  the 
services  of  the  moles,  but  the  writer  is  sorry  to  say  that  he 
thinks  this  kind  of  game  is  not  often  easily  caught.  Where 
fields  are  plowed,  and  a  rotation  of  crops  is  followed,  moles  are 
seldom  troublesome. 

Pocket  Gophers. — With  these  diggers  the  writer  has  had  no 
experience,  but  from  all  accounts,  they  will  often  do  a  good  deal 
of  damage.  Their  burrows  are  a  great  nuisance,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  grass  and  clover  which  they  devour  or  tread  under  foot. 

Woodchucks. — These  large  rodents  are  often  very  trouble- 
some to  the  farmer  who  owns  dry,  sandy,  or  gravelly  land.  They 
47 


370  INSECTS. 

dig  long  holes,  raise  piles  of  dirt,  devour  and  tramp  down  large 
patches  of  meadow.  They  can  usually  be  caught  quite  easily  in 
steel  traps ;  they  can  be  shot  if  one  has  the  patience  to  watch  for 
them.  Where  the  ground  is  not  too  high  and  dry  and  a  good 
supply  of  water  handy,  by  taking  advantage  of  a  wet  time  when 
the  soil  is  full  of  moistuie,  they  can  often  be  drowned  out  and 
made  to  come  to  the  surface,  where  they  make  sport  for  the  dog. 
To  help  make  the  job  a  success,  before  beginning,  draw  several 
barrels  of  water  and  pour  them  in  quick  succession  down  the 
hole,  which  is  in  the  highest  place. 

Insects. — The  rest  of  this  chapter  is  prepared  for  this  volume 
by  my  colleague,  Prof.  A.  J.  Cook. 

It  is  generally  supposed,  even  by  those  best  informed  and  most 
interested,  that  our  forage  plants,  including  clovers  and  grasses, 
are  comparatively  free  from  the  devastation  of  insect  pests. 
While  our  fruits,  vegetables  and  grains  are  known  to  be  tunneled 
or  devoured  at  the  root,  girdled  or  fed  upon  at  stem  and  foliage, 
and  blasted  in  the  fruit,  the  same  is  not  generally  supposed  to 
be  as  true  of  the  plants  which  give  value  to  our  pastures  and 
meadows.  While  Hams  and  Fitch  give  account  of  many  in- 
sects which  prey  upon  nearly  all  others  of  our  cultivated  plants, 
very  few  are  mentioned  that  attack  our  grasses  and  clovers,  even 
by  these  great  scientists  and  wonderful  observers.  Mr.  J.  Stan- 
ton  Gould,  in  his  Forage  Crops,  knows  only  four  insects  which 
attack  the  clovers,  while  at  that  time  over  seventy  were  known 
to  attack  the  apple.  This  is  not  because  such  enemies  do  not 
exist,  but  rather  because  the  plants  fed  upon  are  so  abundant 
that  even  great  damage  is  either  not  noticed  or  else  is  supposed 
to  be  due  to  drought  or  other  climatic  disturbance,  or  forsooth  to 
the  "running  out"  of  the  crop.  The  very  nature  of  our 
grasses  and  clovers  conceals  insect  ravages,  and  thus  the  harm 
must  become  very  patent  or  it  will  generally  be  all  unobserved. 

At  present  over  seventy  different  species  of  insects  are  known 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOVER. 


371 


to  attack  the  clover,  and  nearly  or  quite  as  many  draw  their  sus- 
tenance from  our  grasses.  It  is  not  probable  that  all  this  in- 
crease is  due  to  more  close  study  and  observation.  Insects  are 
constantly  leaving  our  wild  plants,  either  from  choice  or  neces- 
sity, and  adopting  our  cultivated  plants  as  a  more  acceptable 
diet.  We  are  constantly  introducing  species  from  the  old  world, 
some  of  which  are  of  recent  importation,  and  may  well  cause 
solicitude  because  of  the  serious  damage  they  do.  Both  of  these 
causes,  change  of  food,  habits  and  importation  will  continue  to 
increase  these  pests,  so  that  constant  study  and  experiment  will 
be  necessary  to  ward  off  the  threatening  danger. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Clover. — In  the  report  of  the  New  York 
Agricultural  Society  for  1881-82,  p.  190,  Prof.  J.  A.  Lintner 
gives  a  list  of  insects  which  infest  clover  in  Europ^e.  There  are 
71  species.  Nearly  every  genus  represented  by  these  foreign 
species  is  included  in  our  insect  fauna.  The  list  is  of  much  in- 
terest to  us,  the  more  so  as  the  noxious  insects  of  Europe  are 
constantly  being  introduced  into  America.  The  following  is  the 
list: 


Sitones  flavescens Morsham. 

Sitones  lineatus Linn. 

Phytononius  nigrorostris Fabr. 

P.  meles  var.  trifolii Herbst. 

Tychius  polylineatus Germ. 

Tychius  pisirostris Fabr. 

Ceutorhynchus  lineatus Payk. 

Apion  seniculum Kirby. 

Apion  virens , Herbst. 

Apion  flavipes Fabr. 

Apion  fagi Linn. 

Apion  a ssi  1 1 1  i  1  ( • Kirby. 

Apion  trifolii Linn. 

Apion  gracilipes J>ietrich. 

Apion  varipes. Germ. 

Apion  apricans Germ. 


Apion  craccae 

Coccinella  impunctar 

Hylesinus  trifolii Mull. 

Labidostomis  longimana Linn. 

Lycaena  Amyntas Schiffm. 

Lycaena  Alexis Treits. 

Lycaena  ^fEgon Schiffm. 

Lycaena  Cyllarus Fob)'. 

Lycaena  Dolus Hubn. 

Lycaena  Adonis Hubn. 

Lycsena  Argus Hubn. 

Melitaea  Athalia Esp. 

Melitaea  Cinxia 

Colias  Hyale Linn. 

Leucophasis  sinapis JAnn. 

Zygaena  Minos Hubn. 


372 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOVER. 


Zygaena  meliloti Ochs. 

Zygaena  lonicerae -  - . Hilbn. 

Zygaena  trif olii Esp. 

Zygaena  filipendulae . . Hubn. 

Zygaena  peucedani Esp. 

Zygaena  scabiosae  . . Hiibn. 

Zygaena  Achilleae Hubn. 

Zygaena  angelicae . Ochs. 

Orgyia  fascelina .Hilbn. 

Gastropacha  rubi Hiibn. 

Gastropacha  trif  olii Hiibn. 

Callimorpha  hera Linn. 

Lasiocampa  trif  olii Linn. 

Orthosia  litura ..Hiibn. 

Orthosia  gracilis. .Hiibn. 

Plusia  gamma. Hiibn. 

Mamestra  pisi .  % Hiibn. 

Mamestra  chenopodii Hiibn. 

Mamestra  suasa Esp. 

Agrotis  comes Hiibn. 

Episema  graminis -. Linn. 


Euclidia  glyphica 

Euclidia  mi Hubn,. 

Herminia  crinalis Treits. 

Boarmia  selenaria Hiibn. 

Fidonia  clathrata Linn. 

Ortholitha  bipunctaria S.  V. 

Ortholitha  palumbaria Hubn^ 

Ypsolophus  deflectivellus H.  S, 

Phoxopteryx  badiana S.  V. 

Gelechia  tamiolella ....Traits. 

Gelechia  anthyllidella ..Hiibn. 

Lithocolletis  Bremiella -  Frey. 

Lithocolletis  insignitiella Zeli: 

Coleophora  deauratella Lienig. 

Acipitilus  pentadactylus JAnn. 

Agromyza  trif  olii Kaltenb. 

Agromyza  nigripes 

Lopus  roseus Fall. 

Aphis  pisi Kaltenb. 

Epilachna  globosa 

Goniostena  sexpunctata 


Acontia  Solaris      Hiibn. 

In  the  same  volume,  p.  192,  Prof.  Lintner  gives  the  following 
list  of  insects  attacking  the  clover  in  the  United  States,  nearly 
all  of  which  are  widely  distributed : 

LEPIDOPTERA. 


Callidryas  Cuvale Linn. 

Colias  Caesonia ..Stoll. 

Colias  Eury theme. Boisd. 

Colias  Philodice Godt . 

Terias  Nicippe Cram. 

Terias  Lisa ..Boisd-Lec. 

Terias  Delia Cram. 

Melitaea  Editha Boisd. 

Chrysophanus  Americana D'  Urb. 

J-iycaena  Comyntas Godt. 

Eudamus  Pylades JScudd. 

Hyphantria  textor Harr. 

Arctia  Phalerata . . .  ...Harr. 


Arctia  Achaia Or.-Rob. 

Pyrrharctia  Isabella Sm.-Abb. 

Hyperchiria  lo Sm.-Abb. 

Agrotis  saucia Hubn. 

Mamestra  trif  olii Esp. 

Mamestra  renigera Steph. 

Mamestra  (Ceramica)  picta.--.Hdrr. 

Leucania  unipuncta Haw. 

Prodenia  commelinae Sm.-Abb. 

Drasteria  erechtea. Cram. 

Hypena  scabra - ...Fabr. 

Aspilates  dissimilaria ..Hiibn. 

Asopia  costalis Fabr.. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOVER. 


373 


LEPIDOPTERA — CONTINUED. 


Asopia  olinalis Guen. 

Asopia  farinalis Linn. 

Tetralopha  N.  sp 

Phoxopteris  angulifasciana Zell. 

COLEOPTERA. 

Hylastes  trifolii Mutter. 

(Larva  in  roots 

Languria  Mozardi J?abr. 

(Larva  in  stem.) 

Graphorrjiinus  vadosus Say. 

(Imago  on  leaves.*) 


Tortrix  incertana Clem. 

Anaphora  agrotipennella Clem . 

Gelechia  roseosuffusella -  Clem . 


DIPTERA. 

Cecidomyia  leguminicola Lintn. 

(Larva  on  seeds.) 
Cecidomyia  trifolii . . .Loe w. 

(Larva  on  leaves.) 
Oscinis  trifolii Jiurgess. 

(Larva  on  stem. ) 


ORTHOPTERA. — (ALL   ON    LEAVES.) 

Caloptenus  fernur-rubrum...De  Geer. 

Caloptenus  spretus. Thomas. 

Caloptenus  diff erentialis . ..Thomas. 


Caloptenus  bi vittatus JSay. 

Caloptenus  atlanis Riley. 


HOMOPTERA. 

Pemphigus  lepidii Riley,  M.  S.  !  Thrips  sp Welsh . 

(On  roots.)  (On  blossoms.) 

The  following  additional  species  are  added  on  page  206 : 

LEPIDOPTERA. 

Nephelodes  violans,  Guenee,  Riley,  1st  Report,  N.  Y.  St.  Ent.,  1882.  p. 
103. 

Plusia  brassicse,  Riley,  Id  Gen.  Ind.  Suppl.  Mo.  Repts.,  p.  78. 

Heliothis  armiger,  Hub.,  Barret  Ent.  Month  Mag,  XIV.,  p.  151. 

Enpithecia  interruptofasciata,  Pack.,  Coquillet,  Papilio  I.,  p.  57. 

Ephestia  interpunctella  (Hub.,)  Clemens,  Proc.  A.  N.  S.  Ph.  1860,  p.  206. 

Dichelia  sulfureana.  (Clem.)  Comstock  Report  Comm.  Agr.  1880,  p.  255. 

Amphisa  discopunctana,  (Clem.)  Comstock  Report  Comm.  Agr.  1880,  p. 
258. 

Platynota  flavedana,  (Clem.)  Comstock  Report  Comm.  Agr.  1880,  p.  257. 

Sericoris  instrutana,  (Clem.)  Comstock  Report  Comm.  Agr.  1880,  p.  258. 

Grapholitha  interstinctana,  (Clem.)  Comstock  Report  Comm.  Agr.  1880, 
p.  254. 


374  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  CLOVER. 

COLEOPTERA. 

Lachnosterna  serricornig,  Le  Conte.,  Webster  Am.  Nat.,  XVI.,  p.  746, 
Colaspis  brunnea,  Fab.,  Webster  Am.  Nat.,  XVI.,  p.  746. 
Diabrotica  longicornis,  (Say)  Forbes'  12th  Rept.  Ins.  HI.,  pp.  21,  23. 
Diabrotica  12-punctata,  (Oliv.)  Forbes'  12th  Rept.  Ins.  111.,  p.  104. 
Tenebrio  MoHtor,  Fitch,  Fitch  Trans.  N.  Y.  St.  Ag.  Soc.,  XIII.,  p.  376^ 
Macrobasis  unicolor,  (Kirby)  Webster  Am.  Nat.,  XVI.,  p.  746. 
Epicaerus  imbricatus,  (Say)  Webster  Am.  Nat. ,  p.  746. 
Sitones  lineellus,  (Oyllenhal)  European  authors. 
Sitones  flavescens,  (Marsh)  European  authors,  (Kalt  et  al.). 
Phytonomus  punctatus,  (Fab.)  Riley  Am.  Nat.  XV.,  p.  750. 

HEMIPTERA.     . 

PoecUocapsus  lineatus,  (Fab.)  Lintner  1st  Rep.,  N.  Y.  St.  Ent.,  p.  277. 
Limothrips  tritici,  (Fitch)  Lintner  1st  and  2d  Repts.  Ins.  N.  Y.,  p.  304. 

NEUROPTERA. 

Smynthurus  hortensis,  (Fitch)  Fitch  6th-9th  Repts.  Ins.  N.  Y.,  p:  189. 
Smynthurus  arvalis,  (Fitch)  Fitch  6th-9th  Repts.  Ins.  N.  Y.,  p.  191. 

The  following  species  are  mentioned  by  Prof.  S.  A.   Forbes  in 
Entomological  Eeport  of  Illinois,  Vol.  14,  pp.   72-74: 

LEPIDOPTERA. 


Cymatophora  crepuscularia, Tr. 

Haematopis  grataria Fab. 


Tortrix  pallorana ._ Robs. 

Hypena  scabra Fabr. 


Cacaecia  rosaceana Harr. 

HOMOPTERA. 

Coccus  trifolii Forbes. 

ACARINA — MITES. 
Bryobia  pratensis Garman.   \  Bryobia  pallida Oarman. 

To  these  I  would  add  two  other  coccids  which  I  have  observed 
on  clover. 
Pulvinaria  innumerabilis Rath.   \  Lecanium  tiliae Fitch. 

Strecker  in  his  catalogue  of  N.  A.  Mac.  Lipidoptera  gives  Me- 
giinastoma  csesonia,  Stroll  as  feeding  on  clover.  While  in  Rep. 
Comm.  Ag.  1863,  p.  573,  and  in  1865,  p.  40,  Epicae  fallax  is 
mentioned  as  a  clover  enemy. 


HYLASTES  TRIFOLII.     CLOVER-ROOT  BORER.  375 

It  is  more  than  probable  that  others  of  the  butterflies,  es- 
pecially of  the  genera  Colias,  Melitaea  and  Lycaena,  will  be  found 
upon  further  investigation  to  feed  upon  our  clover ;  while  it  is 
not  at  all  probable  that  the  fourteen  species  of  beetles  named  in 
the  list  comprises  all  the  enemies  of  the  clover  belonging  to  that 
order.  There  is  but  little  doubt  that  the  list  will  be  doubled.  Of 
the  Orthoptera  (Locusts)  but  five  are  named,  and  they  all  of  the 
genus  Caloptenus.  It  is  q(uite  certain  that  all  of  our  many 
species  of  .that  genus,  and  nearly  all  others,  may  be  justly  in- 
cluded in  the  list.  Only  one  unnamed  species  of  Thrips  is  men- 
tioned. The  past  season  I  have  found  three  species,  one  black, 
one  light  yellow,  and  one  bright  red,  all  to  be  very  abundant  on 
the  clover  blossoms,  yet  I  could  not  see  that  they  were  greatly 
injurious. 

Many  of  the  insects  named  in  the  above  list  feed  more  gen- 
erally on  other  plants.  Mamestra  picta  prefers  the  cabbage, 
Heliothis  armiger  feeds  on  the  corn  and  cotton,  Leucania  uni- 
puncta— the  army  worm — on  oats  and  the  grasses,  so  that  for 
the  most  part  they  are  not  serious  enemies  to  our  most  valuable 
forage  plant.  One  of  the  insects  named  in  the  list,  Asopia  cos- 
talis,  feeds  on  the  dry  clover,  either  in  the  stack  or  mow,  where 
it  often  does  very  great  injury. 

As  our  space  will  not  permit  a  detailed  description  of  all  of 
the  above  only  those  whose  mischief  is  so  considerable  as  to  cre- 
ate concern -for  the  future  of  one  of  our  most  valued  farm  crops 
will  be  described.  These  work  on  the  roots,  foliage,  and  seed, 
and  will  be  described  in  that  order. 

Hylastes  trifolii,  Clover-root  Borer. 

Order  Coleoptera.     Family  Scolytidce. 

Miiller,  Mem.  Soc.  Dep.  Mt.  Tonerre  I.,  pp.  47-64,  1807. 

Schmitt,  Stett  Ent.  Zeit.  V.,  pp.  889-397,  1844. 

Lintner,  Ann.  Rep.  N.  Y.  St.  Agr.  Soc.,  1879,  pp.  41-42,  111. 

Lintner,  Rep.  N.  Y.  Ag.  Soc.,  1882,  p.  193,  111. 

Riley,  Ann.  Rep.  Comm.  Agr.  1878,  pp.  248-250,  111. 

Riley,  Am.  Entomol.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  180,  1880,  111. 

Saunders,  Ont.  En.  Rep.,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  43,  1881,  111. 


376 


HYLESINUS  TRIFOLII.     CLOVER  ROOT  BORER. 


This  insect  has  long  been  known  as  a  not  very  common  insect 
of  Germany  in  Europe.  Miiller,  as  shown  by  the  name,  re- 
garded it  as  an  enemy  of  the  clover,  while  Schmitt  thought  that 
it  attacked  such  plants  as  were  already  enfeebled,  and  was  not  a 
serious  injury.  In  1878  the  beetle  attacked  this  valuable  'plant 
in  northwestern  New  York,  and  the  fact  that  it  injured  very  se- 
riously the  clover  of  that  region  proves  tha.t  Miiller  was  correct 
and  Schmitt  wrong.  • 

Prof.  Eiley  investigated  the  habits  of  the  insect,  which  he 
found  very  destructive  to  the  clover  in  Yates,  Ontario  and  Seneca 
counties.  He  described  it  under  the  name  Hylesinus  trif  olii,  or 
Clover-root  Borer,  and  pointed  out  the  fact  that  it  is  much  like 
one  of  our  common  bark  beetles,  Hylesinus  opaculus  Lee.,  which 
is  often  found  just  under  the  bark  of  ash  and  elm  trees. 
While  much  like  the  elm  bark  beetle,  it  is  not  only  a  different 
species,  but  is  placed  in  a  different  genus, — Hylastes  by  Leconte 
and  Horn,  and  by  European  Coleopterists. 

«xn|  The  family  to  which  it  belongs,  Sco- 

|g»        lytidae,    is   represented   by  numerous 
MB         species,   usually  called   bark    beetles, 
^1        as  they  tunnel  and  sculpture  various 
evergreen   and    deciduous    trees    just 
beneath  the  bark.     It  is  often  stated 
that    they    attack     enfeebled     trees, 
yet  I  have  often  found  them  indus- 
trious  and   thriving   on    trees   which 
were  in  full  strength  and  vigor. 

The   insect   is   well   represented  in 
Fig.  138,  a  showing  the  affected  plant, 
J  the  grub  or  larva,  c  the  pupa,  and  d 
the  beetle   or   imago.     The  eggs   are 
FIG  138  whitish    oval,    the   larva   white,    with 

yellow  head.     The  length  of  larva  is  3  m  m  (.12  of  an  inch)  in 


HYLESINUS  TRIFOLII.      CLOVER  ROOT   BORER.  377 

length.  The  pupa  is  22  m  m  long  and  has  two  spinous  projec- 
tions on  the  top  of  the  head,  and  two  smaller  anal  projections. 
The  imago  is  black,  with  brown  punctured  elytra.  It  is  2  m  m 
(.08  of  an  inch)  long. 

The  beetle  hibernates,  usually  as  an  imago,  but  also  as  a  pupa 
or  larva.  Mating  occurs  in  early  spring,  when  the  female  bores 
into  the  crown  of  the  plant  and  deposits  five  or  six  eggs.  When 
these  hatch  the  larva  feeds  at  first  in  the  opening  formed  by  the 
imago  for  her  eggs,  but  soon  works  downward  forming  tunnels 
lengthwise  of  the  main  roots,  which  entirely  destroys  the  plant. 

In  September  many  pupae  will  be  found  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  galleries. 

Although  as  yet  this  beetle  has  not  been  found  doing  damages 
in  the  United  States  outside  a  limited  area  in  Hew  York,  it  is 
too  much  to  hope  that  this  will  continue  to  be  true.  Surely 
such  enterprise  as  would  carry  the  insect  from  Europe  to  America 
can  hardly  be  expected  to  permit  it  to  remain  stationary  on  this 
continent.  The  fact  that  it  has  no  parasites,  as  yet  discovered, 
to  weaken  its  efforts  or  reduce  its  numbers,  not  only  accounts 
for  its  exceeding  numbers  in  this  country  as  compared  with  Eu- 
rope, but  also  gives  prophecy  of  wide  extension  and  serious  rav- 
ages in  the  future. 

It  is  difficult  to  suggest  satisfactory  remedies  for  insects  which 
are  so  numerous  and  scattered  as  are  these  beetles.  It  is  prob- 
able, in  fact  the  experience  in  New  York  already  confirms  the 
suggestion,  that  they  will  not  be  equally  destructive  every  year ; 
that  while  they  may  ruin  whole  fields  one  season  the  very  next 
year  they  may  be  quite  rare  and  far  less  injurious.  The  only 
remedy  thus  far  suggested  is  to  plow  the  clover  under  when  the 
insects  are  discovered  to  be  at  work,  and  not  grow  clover  for  a 
time.  This  green  manuring  would  certainly  be  very  excellent 
for  the  land.  Yet  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  insects  would  take 
to  other  herbage,  possibly  other  leguminous  plants,  rather  than 
84 


378  LANGURIA   MOZARDI.     CLOVER-STEM   BORER. 

perish.  This  supposition  seems  more  probable  in  that  this 
species  has  varied  so  far  in  its  habits  from  those  of  its  near  con- 
geners, which  are  all  bark  or  wood  eaters  so  far  as  I  know.  It 
is  quite  probable  that  summer  plowing,  followed  by  thorough 
li  arrowing,  might  destroy  the  insects  at  work  in  the  clover.  If 
such  were  the  case  it  certainly  would  be  a  wise  proceeding. 

Prof.  I.  P.  Koberts  says:  "In  Central  New  York,  of  late 
years,  we  mow  the  seeded  land  but  once  and  pasture  in  the  fall 
the  abundant  second  growth.  Since  1878  the  clover-root  beetle 
has  worked  upon  the  clover  to  such  an  extent  that  it  invariably 
fails  the  second  year.  This  has  caused  us  to  change  from  a  five 
to  a  four  year  rotation,  viz. :  hay,  corn,  oats  and  wheat." 

Languria  Mozardi,  Fabr.,  Clover-stem  Borer. 

Order  Coleoptera:    Family  Erotylidce. 

Latreille,  Gen.  Crust,  etlns.  III.,  p.  66,  1807. 

Say,  Am.  Entomology,  III.,  1828,  111. 

Lamarck,  An.  sans  vert.,  deux.  edit.  IV.,  p.  486,  1835. 

Melsheimer,  Cat.  Coleop.  U.  S.,  p.  47,  1853. 

LeConte,  Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  Phil.  VII.,  p.  161,  1854. 

Oliver,  Entomol.  V.  p.  464,  111. 

Crotch,  Trans.  Am.  Ent.  Soc.  IV.  p.  350,  1873. 

Le  Baron.  4th  Ann.  Rept.  Ins.  111.  p.  181,  1874. 

Comstock,  Ann.  Rept.  Comm.  Ag.  1879,  p.  199,  HI.  1880. 

Saunders,  Ont.  En.  Rep.  Vol.  XII.  p.  44,  1881,  111. 

Lintner,  Ann.  Rep.  N.  Y.  Ag.  Soc.,  1882,  p.  196,  111. 
The  clover-stem  borer,  though  not  very  common,  is  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  country.  It  is  found  in  Michigan, 
Canada,  New  York,  and  south  to  Washington  and  west  to  Kan- 
sas. Indeed  it  is  mentioned  as  far  south  as  Louisiana.  Prof.  J. 
H.  Comstock  was  the  first  to  discover  and  describe  its  full  life 
history.  Though  not  as  yet  known  to  be  a  serious  pest,  from  its 
wide  distribution  we  may  suggest  that  it  does  more  harm  than  is 
suspected,  as  a  great  many  plants  in  a  clover  neld  could  be  de- 
stroyed and  yet  not  be  missed.  Even  though  not  as  yet  alarm- 
ingly injurious  we  cannot  tell  when  it  may  become  so.  In  its- 


CLOVER  STEM  BORER.  870 

distribution  the  seeds  of  mischief  are  wide  scattered,  no  knowing 
when  they  may  germinate. 

Fig.  139  shows  the  eggs, 
larva,  pupa  and  imago  of 
the  insect  as  well  as  the 
natural  size. of  eggs  and 
the  larva — the  latter  as  it 
appears  in  the  hollowed 
stem  of  the  clover.  The 
eggs  are  yellow,  curved, 
and  1.7  m  m  (about  1-16  of  an  inch)  long.  The  larva?  like  wire 
worms,  and  many  other  grubs,  are  slim,  with  the  three  pair 
of  jointed  legs  well  developed,  and  a  pair  of  anal  pro-legs.  When 
full  grown  the  yellow  larva  is  8  m  m  (a  little  more  than  .3  of  an 
inch)  long.  Like  the  pupa  it  has  two  plainly  marked  anal  spines. 
The  pupa  is  also  yellow  and  slender,  and  6mm  long.  I  find 
Say's  description  of  the  imago,  as  usual,  very  exact :  "  It  is  slen- 
der, cylindrical;  the  dark  red  antennae  gradually  form  a  club  of 
five  joints.  The  palpi  are  thread-like;  the  mandibles  bifid  at 
tip ;  the  maxillae  have  horny  teeth.  The  thorax  is  yellowish- 
red,  smooth  and  unspotted.  The  elytra  are  bluish-black,  with  a 
green  tinge,  marked  with  deeply  impressed  punctures,  arranged 
in  regular  series,  but  without  impressed  striae.  The  thighs  are 
pale  rufous  at  base;  the  tibiae  have  a  slight  rufous  tinge;  the 
tarsi  are  dotted  with  dense  hairs  beneath  the  three  basal  joints, 
the  3d  being  bilobate."  The  venter  has  the  three  posterior  joints 
black.  The  length  of  the  beetle  is  about  7  m  m  (i  of  an  inch). 

The  female  lays  the  eggs  in  June,  piercing  the  stem  with  her 
jaws,  and  pushing  her  eggs  clear  in  to  the  pith,  often,  says  Prof. 
Comstock,  to  a  depth  of  6  m  m.  The  larva?  feed  upon  the  pith 
downward,  forming  a  burrow  15  c  m  (6  inches)  long.  This* 
greatly  injures  if  it  does  not  kill  the  plant  outright.  The  pupa 
is  formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  burrow  in  August,  and  shortly 


380  CLOVER  LEAF  BEETLE. 

after  the  fully  developed  beetles  begin  to  appear.  They  are  seen 
to  emerge  from  the  hollowed  stems  from  August  to  October. 
There  is  only  one  brood  a  year.  Like  many  of  our  noxious 
beetles,  the  imago  hibernates  and  waits  for  the  vigorous  plants 
of  genial  June  before  dropping  her  precious  burden  of  eggs. 

If  this  pest  promises  to  do  any  serious  harm  we  have  only  to 
cut  the  clover  early  in  July,  when  we  shall  save  the  crop,  and 
probably  destroy  the  insects.  This  would  give  chance  for  a  sec- 
ond crop  of  hay  or  fine  pasture  or  crop  of  seed  from  the  same 
plants.  It  is  a  welcome  fact  that  Prof  =  Comstock  found  two 
parasites  working  on  these  beetles,  in  such  abundance  that  we 
understand  why  the  latter  are  no  more  numerous  and  destructive. 
One  a  Chalcid  and  the  other  an  Ichnenmon  fly. 

Phytonomus  punctatus,  Fabr.,  Cloyer  Leaf  Beetle. 

Order  Coleoptera.    Family  Curculionidce. 

Le  Conte,  Rhyncophora,  p.  124,  1853. 

Riley,  Am.  Naturalist,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  912,  Nov.,  1881,  111. 

Riley,  Rep.  Comm.  Ag.  1881-82,  p.  171,  IU. 

Kilman,  15th  Rep.  Ont.  En.  Soc.,  1884,  p.  32. 

This,  like  many  of  our  most  destructive  insects,  is  an  im- 
ported species.  It  is  a  common  insect  in  Germany,  and  has 
probably  been  in  this  country  for  years,  as  Dr.  LeConte  received 
it  from  Canada  in  1853,  when  he  described  it  as  Phy.  opimus. 
As  it  does  not  exist  in  collections  of  American  Caleopterists,  it 
is  possible  that  the  insect  described  by  Dr.  LeConte  by  mistake 
was  reported  as  Canadian,  it  really  being  itself  foreign.  In  1881 
a  serious  invasion  of  Western  New  York,  Yates  county,  was  ex- 
perienced, when  Dr.  Riley,  of  the  Agricultural  Department,  in- 
vestigated and  gave  a  detailed  description  of  the  species,  in- 
cluding its  work  and  habits.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Phy- 
tonomus nigrirostris,  also  imported,  exists  in  the  United  States, 
and  doubtless  works  as  a  larva  on  the  clover,  as  it  is  known  to 
do  in  Europe.  I  have  taken  this  species  in  considerable  num- 
bers along  on  our  Western  Michigan  lake  shore. 


CLOVER  LEAF  BEETLE.  381 

Dr.  Riley  records  this  insect  as  very  destructive  in  New  York 
in  1881,  and  again  in  1882.  Mr.  A.  H.  Kilman,  of  Ontario,  re- 
ports this  same  weevil  at  Ridgeway,  in  that  province.  He  says 
they  were  wafted  across  the  lake  by  a  strong  August  wind.  He 
says  that  Eastern  New  York  was  desolated  by  the  insect  in  1883, 
but  that  the  insect  in  that  year  proceeded  no  further  west  than 
Rochester.  .  August  10,  1884,  they  were  so  abundant  in  Buffalo 
that  they  could  be  gathered  by  the  quart,  and  thousands  were 
crushed  by  persons  walking  on  the  pavement. 

As  entomologists  know,  these  weevils  are  armor  proof  against 
water,  we  can  easily  see  how  this  destructive  insect  can  be  easily 
and  quickly  distributed  along  the  shores  of  the  northern  lakes, 
and  thus  soon  become  a  widely  known  and  greatly  dreaded  pest. 


Flo.  140. 

Fig.  140  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  insect  and  its  work;  a,  egg; 
bbbb,  larvae;  c,  recently  hatched  larva;  d,  head  of  larva;  c, 


382  CLOVER  LEAF  BEETLE. 

jaws;  /,  cocoon;  g,  meshes  of  cocoon;  h,  pupa;  i,  weevil  nat- 
ural size ;  /,  side  view ;  Tc,  dorsal  view ;  I,  tarsus  and  claws  of 
beetle;  m,  antenna. 

The  eggs  are  oblong,  oval,  yellow,  1mm  (1-25  of  an  inch) 
long.  The  larva  is  yellowish  at  first,  but  becomes  greenish-yel- 
low with  age.  There  is  a  pale  rose  colored  dorsal  line.  The 
body  is  rough,  length  14  m  m  (.05  inch).  The  pupa  is  well 
shown  in  figure  and  is  greenish  with  yellow  markings.  It  pu- 
pates in  an  oval  yellow  cocoon  of  coarse  threads. 

The  imago  is  dark  brown;  sides  of  thorax  and  elytra  dull  yel- 
low, with  a  central  yellow  line  on  the  thorax.  There  are  rows 
of  black  raised  points  along  the  inner  half  of  the  elytra,  with 
similar  dashes  of  muddy  yellow  towards  the  tips.  The  beetle  is 
1cm  (2-5  of  an  inch)  long. 

The  female  lays  her  200  or  300  eggs  in  the  clover  stem,  which 
she  punctures  for  that  purpose,  in  August.  Dr.  Eiley  says  the 
eggs  are  pushed  into  crevices  at  the  base  of  the  plants. 

The  larva  usually  drops  when  approached,  so  that  only  very 
young  ones  can  be  found  on  the  plants.  The  anus  is  said  to  aid 
in  walking,  as  it  emits  a  sticky  substance,  and  can  hold  or  grasp 
the  stem  of  the  plant.  The  larvse  are  more  active  at  night,  but 
are  very  timid  even  then,  and  can  be  observed  on  the  plants  only 
at  a  distance.  The  larvae  feed  upon  the  clover,  and  mature  in 
about  two  months.  The  pupa  state  lasts  ten  days,  so  that  the 
beetles  come  forth  late  yi  autumn.  The  cocoon  may  be  formed 
among  the  stems  of  clover  or  just  beneath  the  earth.  The  latter 
is  probably  the  position  where  it  will  generally  be  found  in  the 
field.  Some  of  the  weevils  may  deposit  eggs  in  the  fall,,  while 
others  may  remain  as  imagos  and  lay  eggs  the  next  season.  There 
may  be  two  broods  in  a  year,  though  Dr.  Riley  thinks  it  more 
likely  that  there  is  but  one.  and  that  variation  in  size  and  time 
of  appearance  is  caused  by  retarded  or  accelerated  development ; 
while  the  larva  does  no  inconsiderable  damage,  far  the  most  is 


CLOVER-LEAF  MIDGE.  383 

done  by  the  mature  beetle.  The  weevils  are  voracious  eaters, 
consuming  every  part  of  the  plant  above  the  earth,  and  like  most 
weevils  feeding  by  night  and  hiding  by  day  in  crevices  in  the 
earth  or  among  the  stems  of  the  plants.  Like  the  larvae  they 
are  very  timid,  and  fall  at  the  slightest  jar  of  the  plants.  It 
feeds  on  all  kinds  of  clover,  red,  white,  and  alsike.  The  beetles 
in  July  and  August  often  do  very  serious  damage,  completing 
the  work  of  destruction  so  well  begun  by  the  larvae  at  an  earlier 
date. 

Dr.  Riley  expresses  an  opinion,  possibly  born  of  hope,  that  this 
insect  will  not  spread.  I  have  already  shown  how  it  may  easily 
be  carried  far  west,  and  as  we  already  have  seen,  it  surely  is 
spreading  quite  rapidly,  there  is  grave  reason  to  fear  its  general 
spread  in  the  Northern  United  States. 

As  we  can  not  well  use  Paris  green,  it  is  probable  that  no  bet- 
ter thing  can  be  done  than  to  plow  under  the  clover  in  fields  at- 
tacked in  May,  at  which  time  the  insects  will  be  in  the  larva 
state,  and  so  probably  killed  by  this  treatment.  If  we  wait  to 
cut  for  hay  many  of  the  insects  would  have  already  pupated,  and 
so  would  come  forth  to  new  mischief  the  next  year. 

It  is  probable  that  the  various  predaceous  insects  will  aid  to 
diminish  the  numbers  of  this  pest,  and  in  time  the  parasitic  in- 
sects here  as  well  as  in  Europe  will  help  to  hold  it  in  oheck. 

Cecidomyia  trifolii,  Leow,  Clover-leaf  Midge. 

Order  Diptera.    Family  Cecidomyidae. 

Loew  Verhandl.  Zool.  Bot.,  Gesell.,  XX.,  14,  p.  142,  1874. 

Comstock  Ann.  Rept.  Comm.  Ag.,  1879,  pp.  197-199,  HI. 

Lintner  Rept.  N.  Y.  Ag.  Soc.  1882,  p.  203,  El. 

Saunders  Rept.  Ontario  En.  Soc.,  Vol,  XII.,  p.  45,  1881,  HI. 
This  insect  is  so  nearly  like  the  far  more  destructive  clover 
leaf  midge,  yet  to  be  described,  that  only  an  expert  could 
distinguish  them  the  one  from  the  other.  This  species  has  only 
been  discovered  about  Washington,  and  unless  it  becomes  more 
widely  distributed,  or  worse  still,  learns  the  habit  of  its  near 


384  CLOVER-LEAF  MIDGE. 

congener,  which  is  doing  widespread  and  most  serious  harm,  it 
will  be  of  minor  economic  importance. 

As  will  be  noticed  it  is  closely  related  to  the  well-known  Hes- 
sian fly  and  wheat  midge,  so  destructive  to  the  wheat  crop. 

Fig.  141  shows  the  clover 
leaf  concealing  the  larvse; 
one  leaf  spread  open  exhib- 
its the  cocoons  of  the  in- 
sect, the  larva  and  midge 
or  fly.  The  maggots  are 

FIG.  141.  folded  in  the  leaflets  of  the 

clover,  and  are  at  first  white,  but  later  assume  an  orange  hue. 
When  full  grown  this  footless  larva  is  1.5  m  m  (.059  of  an  inch) 
long.  The  pupae  are  enclosed  in  white  delicate  cocoons,  fastened 
between  the  sides  of  the  folded  leaflets.  See  fig.  The  color  of 
pupa  is  pale  orange.  Eyes  dark,  folded  appendages  brown.  The 
fly  is  brown  in  color  with  yellowish  hairs  on  the  thorax.  The 
female  is  1.6  m  m  long,  -the  male  a  little  shorter.  Except  that 
the  fly  is  a  little  smaller,  and  that  the  female  has  fourteen  in- 
stead of  sixteen  joints  to  the  antennae,  it  is  almost  exactly  like 
the  clover  seed  midge,  which  will  be  more  fully  described  and 
illustrated  as  its  importance  demands.  The  minute  eggs,  from 
two  to  twenty,  are  laid  in  the  creases  of  the  leaflets  either  of  the 
red  or  white  clover.  In  June  the  larva  absorbs  the  juices  of  the 
leaflet,  causing  it  to  turn  brown  and  to  become  slightly  thick- 
ened, showing  the  tendency  to  form  galls,  which  is  peculiar  to. 
many  Cecidomyian  maggots.  The  irritation  causes  the  leaflets 
to  fold,  thus  forming  a  safe  domicile  for  the  defenceless  larvae. 
Late  in  June  or  early  in  July  the  flies  come  forth. 

From  the  exposed  condition  of  this  insect  it  is  very  likely  to- 
become  the  prey  of  parasitic  insects,  and  so  never  become  very 
numerous.  Even  in  considerable  numbers  it  does  no  very  se- 


CLOVER-LJEAF  OSCINIS.  885 

rious  harm,  and  unless  it  change  its  habits  will  never  be  a  serious 
pest.     We  hardly  need  then  to  discuss  remedies  for  its  ravages. 
Oscinis  trifolii  Burgess.    Cloyer-leaf  Oscinis. 

Order  Diptera.    Family  Oscinidce. 

Burgess,  Ann.  Kept.  Comm.  Agrl.  1879,  p.  201. 

Comstock,  Ibid,  pp.  200,  201. 

Lintner,  Kept.  N.  Y.  Ag.  SOQ.  1882,  p.  205.  • 

Fitch  described  a  species  of  this  genus,  0.  tibialis,  which  at- 
tacks the  wheat  stem.  See  Fitch's  Kept.,  1st  and  3d,  p.  300, 
and  for  illustration  PI.  1,  Fig.  5th.  Dr.  Riley  describes  Oscinis 
brassicse,  which  attacks  the  cabbage,  Kept.  Oomm.  Ag.  1884,  p. 
322.  which  is  fully  illustrated  PI.  VIII.,  Fig.  5th,  which  cut 
would  answer  in  a  general  way  for  the  Clover  Leaf  Oscinis. 
There  are  several  European  species  which  give  our  friends  over 
the  sea  some  anxiety. 

The  clover  Oscinis  is  quite  like  our  Anthomyia  in  habits  and 
general  appearance.  The  eggs  are  very  small  and  white.  The 
larvae  greenish-white,  slender,  tapering  towards  the  head.  They 
are  1.7  m  m  long.  The  puparium  is  shorter,  oblong,  and  of 
a  brown  color.  The  fly  is  yellow,  with  the  dorsal  surface  of  its 
abdomen  and  thorax  black.  It  is  quite  hairy.  The  length  is 
1.3  m  m,  about  .05  of  an  inch.  The  eggs  are  probably  laid  in 
May  or  in  early  June.  The  larva  mines  the  leaves  and  stems 
of  white  clover,  possibly  red  as  well,  much  as  the  radish  mag- 
got gouges  out  the  plant  on  which  it  feeds.  Late  in  June  the 
maggot  crawls  from  its  tunnels  and  falls  to  the  earth,  which  it 
enters  to  form  the  puparium.  The  flies  appear  about  two 
weeks  later.  There  are  two  and  may  be  three  broods  a  season. 
If  these  little  sappers  and  miners  ever  become  so  numerous  as 
to  do  serious  injury  we  will  have  to  resort  to  feeding  our  clover 
down  and  use  ensilage  for  winter. 

49 


886  LEAF   ROLLERS. 

Tortrix  Sulfureana  Clem.  Cloyer  (attacks  grass).  Tor» 
trix  flavedana  Clem.  Sericoris  instrutana,  Ciena.  Leaf 
rollers. 

Order  Lepidoptera.  Family  Tortricidce. 
Forbes,  111.  En.  Report,  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  17. 
Comstock,  Rept.  Comm.  Agr.  1880,  pp.  255-258. 

These  insects,  which  are  closely  reflated  to  the  codling  moth 
and  the  apple  tree  leaf  rollers,  which  are  so  harmful  to  our  or- 
chards in  early  summer,  are  all  found  in  Michigan  and  the  other 
Northern  States,  and  South  even  to  the  Gulf.  While  they  at- 
tack all  the  clovers  they  are  not  confined  to  them,  but  work  on 
many  other  garden  and  field  plants.  In  all  the  species  the  larvae 
draw  the  leaves  about  them  by  means  of  silken  threads,  which 
they  spin,  and  when  disturbed  drop  and  hang  suspended  by 
means  of  a  thread,  which,  like  a  spider,  they  can  spin  as  needed. 
A  more  harmful  leaf  roller  attacks  the  clover  seed,  and  will  be 
described  later. 

The  larva  of  the  first  species  is  yellowish-green,  the  second 
green,  the  third  yellow.  The  larvae  are  about  \  of  an  inch  (12 
to  14  m  m)  long.  The  pupae  are  shorter  and  brown  in  color. 
The  moth  of  the  first  species  is  bright  yellow,  with  a  y-shaped 
purple  mark  on  each  front  wing.  The  same  color  marks  the 
front  and  outer  margins  of  the  same  wings.  The  back,  or  sec- 
ondary wings,  are  yellowish,  varying  to  brown.  It  expands  a  lit- 
tle more  than  |  of  an  inch.  The  second  species  is  a  little  larger. 
The  males  are  dark  brown,  with  reddish-yellow  markings.  Hind 
wings  reddish.  Females  red,  with  oblique  obscure  bands  across 
front  wings.  Females  expand  £  of  an  inch.  The  males  are  not 
quite  so  large.  The  color  of  the  moth  in  the  third  species  varies 
from  yellow  to  yellowish-brown.  It  is  about  the  size  of  the  sul- 
fureana. 

These  are  seen  feeding  on  the  rolled  up  leaves,  which  serves  both 
for  home  and  food  in  May  and  June,  and  again  in  August,  so 
there  are  two  broods  a  year. 


CLOVER   DRASTERIA.  887 

I  have  found  Paris  green  sure  death  to  orchard  and  shade  tree 
leaf  rollers,  and  without  doubt  it  would  kill  these  that  infest  the 
clover.  Its  practicality  however  in  this  case  is  not  so  apparent. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  parasites  and  other  enemies  will  prevent 
these  leaf  rollers  from  becoming  very  serious  pests. 

Without  doubt  other  Tortricids  will  be  found  to  attack  the 
clover,  but  as  all  are  so  nearly  alike  in  their  character  and  habits, 
what  has  been  said  will  apply  in  a  general  way  to  all  of  them. 

Drasteria  erechtea  Cram.    Clover  Drasteria. 

Order  Lepidoptera.     Family  Noctuidce. 

Saunders,  Ont.  En.  Report,  1881,  p.  47,  111. 

Saunders,  Ont.  En.  Report,  1875,  p.  36,  DL 

French.  111.  En.  Rep.,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  133,  El. 

Coquillett,  111.  En.  Rep.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  148. 

Packard,  Guide  to  Study  of  Insects,  p.  317. 

This  is  as  common  as  any  moth  in  Michigan,  and  the  same  is 
true  in  many  other  States.  The  familiar,  short,  jerky  flight  re- 
minding us  of  the  tiger  beetles,  is  seen  from  early  spring  till  late 
autumn.  Though  so  common,  and  though  with  slight  excep- 
tion (it  sometimes  feeds  on  grass)  the  caterpillars  feed  exclusively 
on  clover,  yet  I  think  the  insect  is  not  considered  a  foe  to  be 
dreaded.  It  may  be  that  in  case  of  crops  like  the  clover,  where 
plants  are  numbered  by  the  million,  we  suffer  more  from  insect 
attack  than  we  know. 

The  larva  is  reddish-brown,  marked  with  longitudinal  lines  of 
dark,  white  and  pink  color.  When  full  grown  it  is  3cm  (l£ 
inches)  long.  There  are  only  three  pairs  of  pro  legs,  so  the  cat- 
erpillar, like  others  of  the  lower  Noctuids,  is  a  geometer,  or 
"measuring  worm."  It  spins  a  loose  cocoon,  in  which,  as  also 
in  its  gait,  it  reminds  us  of  the 
true  geometers.  The  moth  is 
well  represented  in  the  figure. 
The  fore  wings  are  dusky-brown, 
with  darker  bands  crossing  them, 


COMMON  YELLOW    BUTTERFLY. 


one  near  the  base,  and  another,  sometimes  incomplete,  midway 
between  this  and  the  outer  margin,  near  the  apex,  is  a  quite 
dark  patch.  Dashes  of  dull  brown  are  scattered  along  the  wing. 
The  moth  expands  nearly  3cm  (1£  inches). 

The  caterpillars  will  be  seen  feeding  on  -the  clover  all  the  sum- 
mer long,  and  at  the  sune  time  the  moths  may  be  started  on 
their  short  journeys  as  we  walk  over  the  clover  fields. 

Colias  Philodice.    Common  Yellow  Butterfly. 

Order  Lepidoptera.  Family  Papilionedce. 
Saunders,  Ont.  En.  Report,  1881  p.  47,  111. 
French,  HI.  En.  Report,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  147. 
Packard,  Guide  to  Study  of  Insects,  p.  250. 

What  was  said  of  the  abundance  of  the  Clover  Drasteria  is 
even  more  applicable  to  our  yellow  butterfly.  Few  insects  are 
more  common,  more  widely  distributed,  or  better  known  than 
the  sulphur-yellow  butterfly  which  gladdens  the  pasture  and 
roadside,  and  flecks  the  damp  places  along  the  roadways  of  all 
our  Northern  States.  What  was  said  of  the  food,  habits,  and 
destructiveness  of  the  Drasteria  erechtea  can  also  be  said  as  truly 
of  Colias  philodice. 

Fig.  143  shows  the  male  and 
female  of  this  familiar  butterfly. 
The    eggs   are  long,    tapering, 
ribbed,    and   though  yellow    at 
first  change  as  the  embryo  de- 
velops, first  to  red  and  then  to 
brown,  just  prior  to  hatching. 
The   young  larva  is  brown 
with  a  yellowish  tinge.     La- 
ter it  changes  to  green.    The 
green  head  has  a  yellowish- 
white   stripe   on   each   side, 
with    a   dash  of  red  at  the 
lower  edge.      The   body  is 


INSECTS  ATTACKING  CLOVER  SEED.  889 

hairy,  and  when  full  grown  the  caterpillar  is  2.5  c  m,  or  one  inch, 
long.  The  chrysalis,  like  that  of  our  cabbage  butterfly,  Pieris 
rapae,  which  it  resembles,  is  suspended  by  an  anal  tuft  and  a  shoul- 
der girdle.  It  is  pale  green,  tinted  with  yellow.  On  each  side  of 
the  head  is  a  dark  red  line,  and  yellow  stripes  are  seen  on  the 
sides  near  the  tip.  The  yellow,  occasionally  very  nearly  white, 
butterflies  with  wings  bordered  with  black,  sometimes  gray,  black, 
or  brown  are  well  shown  in  the  figure.  The  border  is  narrower 
in  the  male,  and  encloses  yellow  spots  in  the  female.  A  black 
spot  is  seen  on  the  front  wings  of  both  sexes.  The  secondary  wings 
are  bordered  with  dark  in  both  sexes,  and  bear  an  orange  spot. 
The  antennae  and  fringe  to  the  wings  are  pink.  The  body  is 
black  above  and  paler  below.  The  size  is  given  in  the  figure. 

The  eggs  are  laid  in  May  and  August  on  the  clover,  and  other 
leguminous  plants,  as  peas,  etc.  The  caterpillars  are  feeding 
from  four  to  six  weeks.  The  chrysalids  are  fastened  to  clover  or 
other  object,  and  last  about  twelve  days.  The  butterflies  swarm 
in  May  and  again  in  July  and  August,  when  they  are  often  so 
thick  as  to  remind  us  of -a  snow  storm. 

What  was  said  of  damages  and  remedies  in  considering  the 
last  insect  applies  as  well  to  this  one. 

Insects  Attacking  Cloyer  Seed.— While  the  damage  done  to 
clover  by  some  of  the  insects  already  described,  especially  the 
borers,  is  quite  serious  at  times,  the  datiger  from  those  attacking 
the  seed  is  still  more  formidable,  and  may  well  cause  anxiety. 
Happily  the  number  in  this  list  is  very  limited. 

Cecidomyia  leguminicola,  Lint.    Clover  Seed  Midge. 

Order  Diptera.    Family  Cecidomyicke. 

Lintner,  Canad.  Entomol.,  XI.,  p.  44,  pp.  121-134,  1879. 

Lintner,  Kept.  N.  Y.  Ag.  Soc.,  1878,  pp.  62-64. 

Lintner,  Rept.  In.  In.,  1878,  pp.  4-6. 

Lintner,  Rept.  N.  Y.  Ag.  Soc.,  1880,  pp.  37-41. 

Lintner,  Rept.  Ent.  Soc.,  Ont.,  1879,  pp.  28-30. 

Lintner,  N.  Y.  Ag.  Soc.,  1882,  p.  198,  HI. 


390 


CLOVER   SEED  MIDGE. 


Riley,  Ann.  Rept.  Comm.  Ag.,  1878,  pp.  250-252,  m. 
Riley,  Ann.  Rept.  Comm.  Ag.,  1884,  p.  411. 
Comstock,  Ann.  Rept.  Comm.l  Ag.,  879,  pp.  193-197. 
Saunders,  Rept.  Ont.  En.  Soc.,  1881,  p.  38,  Dl. 

This  is  not  only  one  of  the  most  alarming  of  our  clover  pests, 
but  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  to  be  dreaded  insects 
now  infesting  the  valuable  crops  of  the  United  States.  It  not 
only  does  very  serious  damage,  but  is  spreading  with  great  ra- 
pidity. Prof.  Lintner  first  discovered  it  in  a  limited  area  in 
Eastern  New  York.  Now — 1885 — it  is  known  to  exist  in  Vir- 
ginia, Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Ontario,  Michigan,  and  all 
through  New  York.  The  fact  that  the  insect  may  remain  in  the 
seed,  and  thus  be  carried  with  it  any  distance,  adds  to  the 

dangers  threatened  by 
this  comparatively 
new  pest. 

Fig.  144  a  shows  the 
female  midge,  ovipos- 
itor extended ;  c,  ovi- 
positor more  magni- 
fied ;  I),  head  more  en- 
larged ;  d  shows  great- 
er enlargement  of 
three  joints  of  anten- 
nas. 

Fig.  145  a  shows  maggot  or 
larva;  b,  head  more  magni- 
fied. 

FIG.  i4o.  T.  ne  esss  are  °vai>  pale  yei- 

low,  and  only  .025  m  m  (.01  of  an  inch)  long. 

The  larva  or  maggot  varies  from  white  to  dark  orange  or  or- 
ange-red. It  is  when  full  grown  2mm  (1-12  inch)  long. 


CLOVER  SEED  MIDGE.  891 

The  pupa  is  orange,  with  brown  eyes.  It  is  found  in  a  tough 
silken  cocoon  with  more  or  less  earth  sticking  to  it, 

As  will  be  seen  by  the  figures  the  flies  resemble  closely  the 
wheat  midge,  C.  tritici.  The  abdomen  is  red,  thorax  brownish- 
red.  The  antennae  are  15-jointed  in  the  male,  and  16  in  the  fe- 
male. The  wings  are  hairy,  the  palpi  and  ovepositor  each  four 
jointed.  The  male  is  about  1.5  m  m  long,  the  female  about 
3mm.  The  male  expands  about  3.5  m  m,  the  female  4mm. 
The  size  varies  a  little.  The  dark  scales  obscure  the  red  color, 
so  that  the  flies  appear  dark.  Underneath  the  color  is  yellowish- 
gray.  As  with  the  wheat  midge  and  Hessian  fly  the  ovepositor 
and  clasping  organs  are  very  prominent. 

The  eggs  are  pushed,  by  means  of  the  ovipositor,  down  into 
the  heads  of  red  or  white  clover,  and  lodged  between  the  hairs 
that  surround  the  separate  florets.  They  are  not  glued  nor 
placed  in  the  florets.  As  with  the  Hessian  fly  the  eggs  may  be 
laid  singly,  or  in  groups  of  two,  three,  four  or  five.  As  many  as 
50  eggs  are  sometimes  placed  in  a  single  head  of  clover. 

The  larva  affects  each  seed  much  as  does  the  wheat  midge  each 
wheat  kernel. 

After  absorbing  the  life  from  the  seed  the  larva,  like  the  mag- 
got of  the  wheat  midge,  leaves  the  seed  and  wriggles  till  it  es- 
capes from  the  clover  head  and  falls  to  the  earth.  Often  the 
head  of  clover  seems  alive  as  a  maggot  pushes  from  nearly  every 
seed  in  its  effort  to  reach  the  ground.  The  pupa  is  found  in  its 
cocoon  just  beneath  or  upon  the  earth,  under  some  protecting 
leaf,  etc.  The  flies  have  been  seen  in  New  York  in  May,  Au- 
gust, and  quite  likely  some  flies  may  issue  in  October.  Thus 
there  are  surely  two  broods  in  New  York,  and  possibly  three. 
There  are  certainly  three  farther  South.  The  larvae  will  be  seen 
full  grown  in  the  seed  at  the  North  in  May,  in  July,  and  again 
in  September.  They  probably  pass  the  winter  as  pupae. 

Of  late  the  'larvae  have  been  found  in   seed    in  the  market. 


892  CLOVER  SEED  CATERPILLAR. 

This  is  an  unwelcome  fact,  and  explains  the  rapid  distribution  of 
these  insects. 

The  only  remedy  suggested  is  deep  plowing  when  the  larvae 
are  yet  only  partly  grown.  It  has  been  suggested  that  abandon- 
ing clover  for  a  time  might  be  wise.  That  this  will  suffice  is 
hardly  to  be  expected.  There  is  enough  wild  clover  to  prevent 
the  extermination  or  any  great  diminution  of  these  insects.  We 
can  hope  more  from  parasites.  Already  Mr.  Howard  finds  Eu- 
yrtoma  f  unebris  and  Platygaster  error  engaged  in  this  good  work. 
Success  to  them,  and  may  their  tribe  increase. 

If  seed  is  found  stocked  with  the  larvae  it  should  be  put 
into  a  close  vessel,  as  a  jug  or  barrel,  and  bisulphide  of  carbon 
added.  This  will  kill  all  the  larvae  post  haste.  Even  an  open 
barrel,  water  tight,  may  be  used  by  placing  a  buffalo  robe,  or 
other  air-tight  cover,  over  it.  The  fact  that  this  insect  is  as  far 
West  as  Michigan,  and  possibly  as  far  as  Illinois,  makes  it  a  mat- 
ter of  general  interest.  In  the  future,  clover  seed  will  be  valu- 
able. 

Grapholitha  interstinctana,  Clem.  Cloyer-seed  Cater- 
pillar. 

Order  Lepidoptera.    Family  Tortricidae. 
Comstock,  Rept.  Comm.  Agr.  1880,  p.  254. 
Clemens,  Proceed.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.  PhU.  1860,  p.  351. 
Grote,  Bull.  Buffalo  Soc.  Vol.  I.,  p.  92. 

These  caterpillars  are  also  quite  widely  distributed.  Grote  and 
Comstock  have  taken  them  in  New  York,  Grote  in  Pennsylva- 
nia, Comstock  in  Washington,  and  I  have  found  them  quite  com- 
mon in  Michigan.  A  single  larva  feeds  on  several  and  often  all 
the  seeds  of  a  single  head  of  clover.  Sometimes  I  would  find 
two  larvas  in  a  single  head.  The  insect  was  quite  common  about 
Lansing  last  summer — 1885 

The  larvae  are  dirty  white,  often  greenish,  8mm  long,  and 
spin  white  cocoons  in  the  clover  heads.  The  bodies  bear  many 
white  hairs. 


CLOVER  HAY-WORM.  393 

Chrysalis  light  brown ;  5  m  m  long.  The  anal  segment  bears 
six  hooks,  two  dorsal,  four  lateral.  The  moths  are  small,  brown, 
often  nearly  black,  with  white  lines  and  dots  marking  the  wings. 
They  expand  10  m  m. 

The  moths  lay  the  eggs  in  May  and  August.  The  larvse  are 
feeding  in  June,  and  probably  a  second  brood  in  September. 
The  moths  are  easily  caught  in  the  clover  fields  in  May  and  Au- 
gust. 

By  cutting  the  crop  early  we  might  destroy  the  larvae,  though 
I  should  fear  we  would  not.  Remedies  for  this  and  the  midge 
would  be  about  the  same.  An  Ichneumon  parasite  was  found 
preying  on  these  by  Prof.  Comstock.  It  is  Phanerotoma  tibi- 
alis.  It  is  light  brown,  with  a  large  dorsal  yellow  spot,  and  is  3.5 
m  m  long. 

Insects  Attacking  Clover  Hay.  Asopia  costalis,  Fabr. 
Clover  Hay- worm. 

Order  Lepidoptera.    Family  Pyralidce. 
Riley,  Mo.  Ent.  Rept.  Vol.  VI.,  p.  102,  HI. 
Saunders,  Ont.  Ent.  Rep.  1880,  p.  45,  111. 
French,  111.  Ent.  Rep.,  Vol.  VII.',  p.  47. 

This  insect  works  on  dried  clover  or  clover  hay  while  in  the  mow 
or  stack.  It  is  generally  distributed,  and  scarcely  a  season  goes 
by  that  I  do  not  receive  specimens,  with  request  for  information 
regarding  the  natural  history  and  habits  of  the  insect.  This  be- 
longs to  the  same  family  as  the  bee  moth  and  the  meal  moth. 
Pyralis  farinalis,  Harr.,  which  is  often  very  common  about  barns 
where  meal  is  stored,  and  which  sometimes  also  feeds  on  clover 
hay. 

The  color  of  the  larva,  Fig.  146,  is  dark  brown,  lighter  beneath. 
The  intersegmental  spaces  are  darker  than  the  segments,  which 
makes  the  larvae  appear  to  be  ringed.  It  is  18  m  m  (f  of  an 
inch)  long.  The  cocoon  is  white,  and  12  m  m  long.  The  chrys- 
alis is  yellow  in  color ;  length  £  of  an  inch.  The  imago,  or  moth, 
50 


394 


CLOVER  HAY-WORM. 


is  purple,  with  a  silken  lustre.  There  are  two  bright  yellow 
spots  on  the  primary  wings.  The  posterior  wings  are  lighter 
in  color  than  the  primaries.  All  the  wings  are  margined  with 
orange,  which  terminates  with  a  glossy  yellow  fringe.  They  ex- 
pand about  2cm,  or  .8  of  an  inch. 

In  Fig.  146,  1  and  2  shows 
the  larvae  suspended  by 
threads ;  3  represents  the 
cocoon;  4  the  chrysalis;  5 
moth  with  wings  spread ;  £ 
moth  at  rest;  and  7  larva 
concealed  in  a  case  of  silk 
which  it  has  spun. 

These  moths  are  attracted 


by  lights,  and  are  often  seen 
The  eggs  are  laid  on  clover. 


FIG.  146. 
about  our  lamps  in  mid-summer. 

The  larvae  work  in  a  silken  case,  and  so  often  fairly  mat  the  hay  in 
one  great  mass.  The  larvae  attract  attention  in  summer  working 
upon  the  hay,  but  more  usually  in  February  and  March,  when 
stacks  and  mows  of  cloyer  may  be  fairly  alive  with  larvae.  These 
often  crawl  far  into  the  stacks,  where  they  are  protected  from 
cold,  and  so  are  sometimes  said  to  bear  a  zero  temperature  with- 
out becoming  dormant,  though  the  truth  is  they  have  had  a 
warm  nest.  I  have  seen  them  drop  from  a  mow  suspended  by  a 
silken  thread,  so  thousands  could  be  swept  away  by  one  stroke  of 
a  rake.  They  often  leave  stack  or  mow  and  seek  some  concealed 
place  in  which  to  pupate. 

It  is  probably  true  that  leaving  clover  hay  in  mow  or  stack 
year  after  year  will  promote  the  rapid  increase  of  these  pests. 
Feeding  out  all  the  hay  each  winter  would  be  a  wise  precaution, 
or  if  any  hay  is  to  remain  over  let  it  be  other  than  clover. 

Of  the  many  other  species  mentioned  at  the  beginning  of  this 
article  none  are  as  yet  sufficiently  important  to  demand  full  de- 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  GRASS.  395 

scription,  Most  work  as  much  if  not  more  on  other  plants. 
Some  are  very  rare  insects,  and  others,  though  common,  seem 
not  to  attract  any  general  attention  by  their  presence. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Grass  Crops. — The  insects  which  are 
known  to  attack  our  grasses  make  even  a  more  formidable  list 
than  those  injurious  to  the  clovers.  Eighty  or  more  species 
either  depend  wholly  or  in  part  upon  our  grasses  for  food.  In 
the  following  list  Hy.  after  the  name  indicates  that  the  insect 
belongs  to  the  order  Hymenoptera;  Lep.,  Lepidoptera;  Dip., 
Diptera;  Col.,  Coleoptera;  Horn.,  Homoptera;  Hem.,  Hemep- 
tera;  Or.,  Orthoplera.  111.  refers  to  111.  Entomological  Reports ; 
Mo.  to  Missouri  Entomological  Reports ;  U.  S.  Reports,  TJ.  S.. 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture ;  Harr.,  Harris  Injurious  Insects; 
Ont.,  Ontario  Entomological  Report;  Pack.,  Packard's  Guide- 
to  the  Study  of  Insects;  Streck.,  Strecker's  Catalogue  of  Macro- 
lepidoptera;  Fitch,  Fitch's  N.  Y.  Reports: 

Acridium  Americanum,  Drury,  Or.,  HI.,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  129.  Me.,  Vol.  VIII.,. 
p.  103,  111. 

Agonoderus,  all  of  the  species,  Col.  III.,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  111. 

Agrotis  c.  nigrum,  Linn,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  89,  202.  Ibid.  Vol.  X., 
p.  132. 

Agrotis  fennica,  Tausch,  Lep.,  Rep.  Mich.  St.  Board  Ag.  1883,  p.  423. 
Ont.  Vol.  XV.,  1884,  pp.  13,  15,  21,  24.  Mich.  Hort.  Rep.  1884,  p.  81. 

Agrotis  saucia,  Hub.,  Lep.,  HI.  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  94,  211.  Ibid,  Vol.  X., 
p.  134.  Mo.;  Vol.  I.,  p.  74.  U.  S.  1884,  p.  297,  111.  Harr.,  p.  444. 

Agrotia  tessellata.  Harr.,  Lep.,  HI.  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  91,  206.  Ibid,  Vol.  X.» 
p.  133.  Harr.,  p.  445.  Ont.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  39. 

Amara,  all  the  species,  Col.,  HI.  Vol.  XII.,  p.  110. 

Anisodactylus,  all  the  species,  Col.,  El.  Vol.  XII.,  p.  111. 

Aphis  Maidis,  Fitch,  Horn.,  Fitch,  Vols.  I.  and  II.,  p.  318.  HI.  Vol. 
XIII.,  p.  46. 

Arctia  (Leucarctia)  acraea,  Sm.,  Lep.,  Harr.,  p.  351.  Pack.,  p.  286. 
HI.  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  79,  183.  Ibid.,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  115,  170.  Ibid,  Vol.  XI.,  p. 
62. 

Arctia  phalerata,  Harr.,  Lep.,  Harr.,  p.  347.  111.  VoL  VII.,  p.  181.  Ibid, 
Vol.  X.,  p.  115. 


396  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  GRASS. 

Blissus  leucopterus,  Say,  Het.,  Harr.,  p.  198.  HI.  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  15,  40. 
Ibid,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  32.  IU.  Mo.,  Vol.  II:,  p.  15,  111.  Ibid  ,  VII.,  p.  19. 

Bryobia  pratensis,  Gar.,  Acarina,  111.  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  73. 

Bryobia  pallida,  Gar.,  Acarina,  111.  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  74. 

Calathus  gregarius,  Say,  Col.,  111.  Vol.  XII.,  p.  109. 

Caloptenus  bivittatus,  Say,  Or.,  111.  Vol.  IX.,  p.  126.  Mo.,  Vol.  VII., 
p.  173,  III. 

Caloptenus  differentialis,  Thos.,  Or.,  111.  Vol.  IX.,  p.  127.  111.  Mo.,  Vol. 
VII.,  p.  173.  Ibid,  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  153. 

Caloptenus  femur-rubrum,  De  G.,  Or.,  HI.  Vol.  I.,  p.  99.  Ibid.  Vol. 
VII.,  p.  35,  111.  Harr.,  p.  174,  IU. 

Caloptenus  spreetus,  Tho.,  Or.,  IU.  Vol.  I,,  p.  82.  Ibid,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  35, 
El.  Ibid,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  121.  Mo.,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  121.  Ibid,  Vol.  VIIL,  p. 
57.  Ibid,  Vol.  IX.,  p.  157.  Report  of  U.  S.  Entomological  Commission. 

Chytolita  morbidalis,  Guen.,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  X.,  pp.  138,  182. 

CoccinellidtB,  Col,  111.  Vol.  XII.,  p.  116. 

Cotalpa  lanigera,  Linn.,  Col.,  IU.  Vol.  XIII.,  p.  146,  111.  American  Nat- 
uralist, 1869,  pp.  186,  441.  Harr.,  p.  24,  111.  Mo.  Vol.  V.,  p.  10. 

Crambus  vulgivagellus,  Clem.,  Lep,,  Lmtner's  Ent.  Report,  Vol.  I.,  p. 
127.  Canadian  Entomologist,  Vol.  XII.,  p.  17.  Ibid,  Vol.  XIII.,  p.  181. 
Am.  Nat.,  Vol.  XV.,  pp.  574,  750,  914.  Ont.  1881,  pp.  6,  13.  U.  S.  1881- 
1882,  p.  179. 

Ctenucha  virginica,  Char.,  Lep.,  111.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  170.  Lintner's  En. 
Con.,  Vol.  III.,  p.  155.  Pack.,  p.  283. 

Debis  Portlandia,  Fab.,  Lep.,  IU.  Vol.  X.,  p.  92.  Strecker's  Catalogue, 
p.  148. 

Dichelia  Sulfureana,  Clem.,  Lep.,  111.,  Vol.  XIV. ,  p.  17.  Fernald's  Cata- 
logue, p.  21.  U.  S.  1880,  p.  255. 

Drasteria  erechtea,  Cram.,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  X.,  p.  148.  Ont.  1881,  p.  47, 
111.  Ibid,  1875,  p.  36. 

Elateridse,  Col,  Harris,  p.  55.  111.  Vol.  V.,  p.  92.  Ibid,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  21. 
Ibid,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  19.  Ibid,  Vol.  XII..  p.  27.  Mo.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  16.  Fitch, 
Vol.  X.,  p.  63. 

Elater  mancus,  Say,  Col.,  Harris,  p.  56.  , 

Galerita  janus,  Fab.,  Col,  111.  Vol.  XII.,  p.  108. 

Glyphina  eragrostidis,  Midd.,  Horn.,  111.  Vol.  VIII. ,  p.  144. 

Gortyna  nitela,  Guenee.,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  VII.,  p.  100.  Ibid,  Vol.  X.,  p. 
151.  Mo.,  Vol.  I.,  p,  56.  Ibid,  Vol.  III.,  p.  105.  Ibid,  Vol.  VIII. ,  p.  37. 

Hadena  devastatrix,  Bruce,  Lep,,  111.  Vol.  VII. ,  p.  216.     Mo.  Vol.  L,  p. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  GRASS.  397 

83.    Ibid,  Supplement,  p.  56.     Harris,  p.  445.     Fitch,  Vols.  I.  and  II.,  p. 
315. 

Harpalus,  all  of  this  Genus,  Col.,  HI.  Vol.  XII.,  p.  112. 

Heliophila  phragmitidicola,  Guenee,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  VII.,  p.  224. 

Heliophila  Harveyi,  Grote  (albilinea,  Hubn)  Lep.,  Mo.  Vol.  EX.,  p.  50. 
m.  Vol.  VII.,  p.  223. 

Isosoma  Elymi,  French,  Hy.,  111.  Vol.  XI.,  p.  81.  Canadian  Entomologist, 
Jan.,  1882. 

Isosoma  hordei,  Harr.,  Hy.,  HI.,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  75.  Fitch,  Vol.  VI.-IX., 
p.  154.  Harris,  553.  Mich.  Ag.  Kept.  1884,  p.  322.  Mo.  Vol.  II.,  p.  92. 

Lachnosterna  fraterna,  Harr.,  Col,,  111.  Vol.  VI.,  p.  101.     Harris,  p.  32. 

Lachnosterna  fusca,  Frohl,  Col,  111.  Vol.  VI.,  p.  97.  Ibid,  Vol.  VH.,  p. 
33.  Mo.  Vol.  I.,  p.  156.  111.  Harris,  p.  30.  Fitch,  Vols.  I.  and  H.,  p. 
248. 

Lachnosterna  hirticula,  Knoch.,  Col.,  111.  Vol.  V.,  p.  87.     Harris,  p.  32. 

Lachnosterna  ilicis,  Knoch.,  Col.,  111.  Vol.  V.,  p.  87. 

Lachnosterna  pilosicollis,  Knoch.,  Col.,  Harris,  p.  33.     111.  Vol.  V.,  p.  87. 

Laphygma  frugiperda,  Guenee.  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  97,219.  Ibid, 
Vol.  X.,  p.  138,  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  55.  Mo.  Vol.  II.,  p.  41. 

Leucania  pseudargyria,  Guenee,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  X.,  p.  139. 

Leucania  albilinea,  Hubn..  Lep.,  Mo.  Vol.  IX.,  pp.  50-55. 

Leucania  unipuncta,  Haw. ,  Lep.,  Harris,  p.  627.  El.  Vol.  VI. ,  p.  56, 
VII.,  p.  101.  Mo.  Vol.  I.,  p.  109.  Ibid,  Vol.  II.,  p.  37.  Ibid,  Vol.  VIII., 
pp.  22,  182.  Ibid,  Vol.  II.,  p.  37. 

Leucarctia  acrgea,  Smith,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  VII.,  p.  183.  Ibid,  VoL  X.,  p. 
170,  Packard,  p.  286. 

Limothrips  poaphagus,  Com.,  Het.  Fernald,  Grasses  of  Maine,  p.  42. 
Comstock  Notes  on  Entomology,  p.  120. 

Loxopeza  atriventris,  Say,  Col.,  111.  Vol.  XII.,  pp.  109,  115. 

Lygus  lineolaris,  Beauv.,  Hem.,  111.  Vol.  XIII.,  p.  115.  Mo.  Vol.  H.,  p. 
113.  Harr.,  p.  201.  U.  S.  Vol.  1884,  p.  312. 

Macrodactylus  subspinous,  Fabr.,  Col.,  111.  Vol.  I.,  p.  24.  Ibid.  Vol.  VI., 
p.  103.  Lintner  Rept.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  227.  Harr.,  p.  35.  Fitch  Vol.  II.,  p. 
245.  U.  S.  1863,  p.  567,  1867,  p.  71,  1868,  pp.  87,  104.  Am.  Entomol., 
Vol.  I.,  p.  251.  Mich.  Pom.  Report  1872,  p.  667.  Mich.  Ag.  Report  1874, 
p.  145. 

Neonympha  Canthus,  Linn.,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  X.,  p.  91. 

Neonympha  eurytris,  Fab.,  Lep.,  HI.  Vol.  X.,  p.  90.  Strecker's  Cata- 
logue, p.  148.  Harris,  p.  306.  Pack.,  p.  264. 


398  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  GRASS. 

Neonympha  gemma,  Hub.,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  X,  p.  91.  Strecker's  Cata- 
logue Macrolepidoptera,  p.  150. 

Neonympha  phocion,  Fabr.,  Lep.,  Strecker's  Catalogue,  p.  149.  Buffalo 
Bulletin,  Vol..IL,  p.  244. 

Neonympha  sosybius,  Fabr.,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  X.,  p.  91.  Strecker's  Cata- 
logue, p.  149.  Buffalo  Bulletin,  Vol.  II.,  p.  145. 

Nephelodes  violans,  Guen.,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  29,  220.  Ibid,  Vol. 
X.,  p.  139.  Lintner's  En.  Report,  Vol.  I.,  p.  99.  Am.  Ento.,  Vol.  III.,  p. 
231.  Am.  Nat.,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  575.  Canadian  Entomologist,  Vol.  VIII.,  p. 
69.  Trans.  Kan.  Acad.  Science,  Vol.  IV.,  p.  45. 

Pamphila  Delaware,  Edw.,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  X.,  p.  96. 

Pamphila  vitellius,  Fabr.,  Strecker's  Cat.,  p.  171.  Proceed.  Ent.  Soc. 
Phil.  II.,  18,  19. 

Pamphila  hobomok,  Harr.,  Lep.,  Strecker's  Cat.,  p.  172.  Harr.,  p.  313. 
Canadian  Ent.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  66.  Proceed.  Bos.  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  XI.,  p. 
381.  111.  Vol.  X.,  p.  97. 

Pamphila,  Iowa,  Scud.,  Lepm  Strecker's  Cat.,  p.  173. 

Pamphila  Mystic,  Edw.,  Lep.,  Strecker's  Cat.,  p.  165.  Proceed.  Ent. 
Soc.  Phil.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  15.  Canadian  Ent.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  66.  Packard,  p.  270. 

Pamphila  Peckius,  Kerby,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  VII.,  p.  160.  Ibid,  Vol.  X.,  p. 
178.  Harris,  p.  315. 

Pamphila  phylaeus,  Dru.,  Lep.,  Strecker's  Cat.,  p.  164.  HI.  Vol.  X.,  pp. 
96,  176. 

Pamphila  Samoset,  Scud.,  Lep.,  Strecker's  Cat.,  p.  174.  Proc.  Ent.  Soc. 
Phil.  Vol.  II.,  p.  507.  Trans.  Ent.  Soc.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  3. 

Pamphila  Sassacus,  Harr.,  Lep.,  Harr.,  p.  315.  111.  Vol.  VII.,  p.  159. 
Ibid,  Vol.  X.,  p.  97.  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  346. 

Patrobus  longicornis,  Say,  Col.,  111.  Vol.  XII.,  p.  113. 

Philometra  serraticornis,  Grote,  Lep.,  111.,  Vol.  VII.,  p.  246. 

Platynus  limbatus,  Say,  111.  Vol.  XII.,  p.  109. 

Plusia  simplex,  Guen.,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  IX.,  p.  48.     Ibid,  Vol.  XI.,  p.  38. 

Pseudoglossa  lubricalis,  Geyer,  m.,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  138,  182. 

Pterostichus,  all  of  the  Genus.     Col.,  111.  Vol.  XII.,  pp.  110,  115. 

Pulvinaiia  innumerabilis,  Rath.,  Horn.,  111.  Vol.  XIV.,  p.  103.  Mich. 
Ag.  Rep.  1883,  p.  429.  111.  Am.  Naturalist,  Vol.  XII.,  pp.  655-661.  Proc. 
Dav.  la.  Acad.  Sci.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  293.  U.  S.  1884,  p.  350. 

Rhizobius  pose,  Thorn.,  Horn.,  111.  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  166. 

Satyrus  alope,  Fab.,  Lep.,  m.  Vol.  VII.,  p.  156.  Ibid,  Vol.  X.,  p.  92. 
Strecker's  Cat.,  p.  157.  Harris,  p.  305. 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  GRASS.  399 

Satyrus  nephele,  Kirb.,  Lep.,  111.  Vol.  VII.,  p.  156.  Ibid,  Vol.  X.,  p.  92. 
Vol.  VI.  Proceed.  Ent.  Soc.  Phil.,  p.  195.  Harr.,  p.  306.  Bull.  Buffalo 
Soc.,  Vol.  II.,  p.  242. 

Scelodonta  pubescens,  Mels.,  Col,  111.  Vol.  XIII.,  p.  163. 

Scepsis  fulvicoUis,  Hubn.,  Lep.,  111.,  Vol.  X.,  p.  171. 

Schizoneura  panicola,  Thorn.,  Horn.,  111.  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  138.  Ibid,  Vol. 
XEIL,  pp.  42,  51. 

Sciara?  Dip.,  111.  Vol.  XIII.,  p.  59. 

Selandria?  Saw  Fly,  Hy.,  U.  S.  1884,  p.  401. 

Siphonophora  avenae,  Fab.,  Horn.,  Fitch,  Vol.  VI.-IX.,  p.  91.  Mo.  Vol. 
II.,  pp.  5,  6,  10.  111.  Vol.  VIII.,  pp.  29,  51. 

Siphonophora  setarise,  Thorn.,  Horn.,  111.  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  56. 

Spilosoma  Virginica,  Fabr.,  Lep.,  Harris,  p.  349.  111.  Vol.  IV.,  p.  188. 
Ibid,  Vol.  VII.,  pp.  80,  183,  277,  280.  Ibid,  Vol.  X.,  pp.  116,  169.  Pack- 
ard, p.  287.  Mo.  Vol.  III.,  p.  68. 

Sphenophorus  parvulus,  Gyll. ,  Forbes'  Notes.  Seen  eating  grass  in  July 
.and  August. 

Sphenophorus  sculptilis,  Uhl,  Col,  Lintner,  En.  Rep.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  253. 
Mo.  Vol.  Ill  ,  p.  59.  U.  S.  1879,  p.  248.  Ibid.  1880,  p.  272.  Ont.,  1880, 
p.  56.  Am.  Nat.,  Vol.  XV.,  p.  915.  U.  S.  1881-1882,  p.  139. 

Tychea  panici,  Thorn.,  Horn.,  111.  Vol.  VIII.,  p.  169. 

In  the  above  list  I  have  given  only  such  s'pecies  as  I  know,  or 
have  good  reason  to  believe,  feed  in  part  or  wholly  on  grass.  I 
have  given  references  that  the  literature  maybe  more  easily  in- 
vestigated, though  many  authors  referred  to  do  not  speak  of  the 
insects  as  enemies  to  our  grasses,  they  do  give  habits  and  charac- 
ters which  are  important. 

In  the  list  given  others  might  very  safely  have  been  included. 
It  is  probably  true  that  all  the  species  of  Lachnosterna — allies  of 
our  May  or  June  beetle,  the  common  white  grub — and  many 
species  of  Delated  genera,  are  injurious  to  grasses,  as  they  quite 
generally  feed  on  the  roots  of  these  plants  in  the  grub  or  larval 
state.  It  is  also  probable  that  others  of  the  genera  Agrotis,  Ha- 
dena,  etc.,  perhaps  all  the  cut  worms,  are  enemies  of  our  mead- 
ows and  pastures.  Till  within  a  couple  of  years  Agrotis  fennica, 
the  Black  Army  Worm,  was  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  most  in- 


400  INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  GRASS. 

offensive  of  these  moths.  Now  we  know  that  it  may  devastate 
whole  meadows.  Recently  a  Paralid,  or  snout  moth,  Crambus 
vulgivagellus,  Clem.,  which  has  heen  supposed  to  be  innoxious, 
did  immense  damage  in  Northern  New  York.  The  same 
moth  is  seen  each  year  in  Michigan  and  other  States,  and 
we  do  not  know  when  it,  or  other  species  of  the  same  genus, 
may  not  come  to  any  locality  in  our  Northern  States  to  the  ruin- 
ation of  our  meadows  and  pastures.  Another  moth,  Nephelodes 
violens,  Guenee,  has  had  a  history  similar  to  that  of  the  Cram- 
bus,  just  mentioned.  This  moth  I  find  while  trapping  moths  by 
sugar  every  year  here  in  Lansing,  sometimes  in  great  numbers. 
We  cannot  tell  when  it  may  come  in  devastating  numbers  in  any 
locality  in  the  United  States.  It  is  probable  that  several  species 
of  Elaters — spring  beetles — the  dreaded  wire  worms,  are  great 
pests  to  our  meadows.  It  is  quite  likely  that  they  do  far  more 
damage  to  grasses  than  is  known  or  suspected.  The  same  may 
as  truly  be  said  of  the  army  worm  moth,  and  other  species  of  the 
Heliophila  (Leucania).  We  note  their  ravages  only  when  they 
come  in  armies.  Yet  I  notice  they  are  quite  common  every  year, 
and  as  they  are  not  usually  driven  by  force  of  numbers  to  leave 
the  meadows  for  other  pasturage  their  blasting  work,  though  not 
inconsiderable,  is  unnoticed.  Many  species  of  grass-hoppers, 
not  mentioned  in  the  above  list — indeed  nearly  all  of  our  locusts — 
are  at  times  more  or  less  destructive  to  grasses,  and  like  the  cut 
worms,  wire  worms,  white  grubs  and  army  worms,  work  unper- 
ceived.  Only  when  they  come  in  swarms,  as  they  have  the  past 
season  (1875),  do  they  attract  attention. 

In  the  above  list  I  have  not  included  any  of  the  Chlorops,  or 
Oscinis,  but  from  the  habits  of  the  closely  related  Meromyza,  as 
wheat  enemies,  the  abundance  of  the  flies  of  these  genera  on 
grass  in  summer,  and  the  added  fact  that  we  often  find  the  mag- 
gots mining  in  the  culms  makes  it  possible  that  they  do  more  or 
less  harm  to  our  species  of  Gramineae.  It  has  been  thought  that 


INSECTS  INJURIOUS  TO  GRASS.  401 

these  maggots  were  what  caused  the  June  grass  to  wither  in 
summer,  as  so  frequently  observed.  This  is  more  likely  due 
to  species  of  thrips,  three  or  more  of  which  I  have  taken  from 
the  culms.  Sometimes  the  grass  withers  from  the  attack  of  the 
stalk  borer,  Gortina  niiela. 

I  have  also  omitted  all  mention  of  leaf  hoppers  in  the  above 
list.  Yet  it  is  not  improbable,  indeed  I  think  it  certain,  that 
various  species  of  Tettigonia  Heleochara  and  Jassus  may  and  do 
often  quite  considerable  damage  to  our  grass  crops.  The  larvae 
of  these  tree  or  leaf  hoppers  are  often  seen  enveloped  in  their 
spittle,  like  secretions,  on  our  grasses,  and  as  such  insects  must 
suck  all  their  nutriment  from  the  grass,  they  can  but  be  quite  a 
serious  damage.  Of  the  Hemiptera,  with  tho  exception  of  a  few 
lice,  plant  and  bark  lice,  the  tarnished  plant  bug  and  the  chinch 
bug,  the  above  list  speaks  not.  It  is  quite  likely  that  other  plant 
and  bark  lice,  and  several  Heteroptera,  especially  of  the  genera 
Capsus  and  Phytocoris,  may  be  found  to  work  no  inconsiderable 
harm  to  our  grasses. 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  included  in  the  list  several  genera 
of  the  family  Carabidae,  all  of  which  have  been  considered  here- 
tofore as  predaceous  species,  and  so  beneficial.  Prof.  S.  A. 
Forbes  has  well  shown  that  many  of  these  ground  beetles  are 
largely  vegetable  feeders,  and  that  grass  is  the  principal  food  of 
most  of  these  species.  Prof.  Forbes. also  finds  that  nearly  if  not 
all  of  the  Coccinellidae  (lady  bird  beetles)  feed  in  part  on  the 
pollen  of  grasses.  These  probably  do  very  little  harm. 

As  was  remarked  in  reference  to  the  insects  infesting  our  clo- 
vers, many  in  the  above  list  live  in  part  on  other  plants,  and 
many  do  very  little  apparent  harm  to  pasture  or  meadow.  A  de- 
tailed description  will  be  given  only  of  such  species  as  are  noted 
enemies. 

51 


402 


MAY   BEETLE— WHITE   GRUB. 


Lachnosterna  fusca,  Frohl.     May  Beetle— White  grub. 

Order  Coleoptera.    Family  ScarabceicUz. 

Without  doubt  the  White  Grub,  which  is  the  larva  of  the 
common  May  beetle,  though  probably  other  species  of  this  same 
and  allied  genera  are  much  like  this  one  in  appearance  and  hab- 
its, is  one  of  the  very  worst  enemies  of  the  grasses,  as  by  eating 
otf  the  roots  whole  meadows,  pasture  fields,  and-  lawns  are  en- 
tirely ruined.  Often  the  roots  of  the  grass  are  so  entirely  con- 
sumed that  all  may  be  raked  off,  leaving  the  entire  field  as  clean 
as  a  well  tilled  summer  fallow. 

The  figure  (147) 
shows  the  insects  in 
*ke  -several  stages  so 

wei1  that  Httie  eise  is 

needed.  The  eggs  are 
laid  in  the  grass  fields. 
The  white,  usually 
curved  and  wrinkled 
grubs  with  brown 
heads,  feed  for  three 
years.  The  pupa  is 
found  in  earthen 
cells,  and  is  not  different  from  other  eopterous  pupae. 

In  May  and  June  the  beetles  come  forth  from  the  earth,  and 
the  females  lay  their  eggs  each  to  the  number  of  from  forty  to 
sixty.  '  It  is  probable  that  these  eggs  are  always  laid  either  in 
grass  plats  or  where  other  vegetation  is  rank  and  plentiful.  The 
beetles  are  nocturnal,  and  as  is  well  known  are  attracted  by 
lights,  and  so  often  become  very  annoying  as  they  enter  our 
rooms  and  houses.  Sometimes  the  beetles  so  swarm  in  trees  as 
to  remind  one  of  a  swarm  of  bees.  Indeed  they  often  do  no  lit- 
tle mischief  in  eating  the  foliage  of  oaks  and  other  trees  during 
these  summer  love  feasts.  The  irrubs  eat  for  three  seasons. 


CUT  WORMS.  403 

Thus  they  are  often  found  in  the  same  grass  field  of  varying 
sizes.  The  third  spring  they  transform  to  pupae,  and  in  May 
the  beetles  begin  to  appear.  It  is  during  the  second  summer 
that  they  do  the  most  harm.  They  are  now  large  and  sleek,  and 
when  they  are  very  numerous,  as  is  often  the  case,  they  some- 
times do  great  damage,  not  only  to  grass  but  to  our  cereal  crops 
and  corn. 

Fall  plowing,  by  giving  the  birds  and  other  insectivorous  an- 
imals a  better  chance,  is  often  practiced  with  excellent  results  in 
fighting  these  pests.  Sometimes  swine  is  turned  into  the  mead- 
ows where  they  fatten  on  the  grubs  instead  of  on  the  grass  which 
the  grubs  have  already  destroyed.  Nothing  is  better  where  a 
field  is  badly  infested  than  to  turn  in  swine.  In  lawns  the  bare 
space  must  be  spaded  up  and  either  sodded  or  else  new  grass 
seed  sown.  Boiling,  which  is  sometimes  advised,  will  do  little 
or  no  good.  I  have  already  spoken  of  birds.  The  crow,  black- 
bird, or  purple  grackle  is  specially  serviceable.  I  have  seen  a 
flock  of  those  birds  clean  a  lawn  in  exceedingly  quick  time. 
Predaceous  wasps  and  beetles  also  prey  upon  these  grubs.  They 
are  also  often  seen  to  afford  a  pasturage  for  large  fungous 
growths,  which  destroy  them.  Not  only  do  white  grubs  do  harm 
to  our  grasses,  but  they  also  attack  corn,  wheat  and  strawberries 
which  are  planted  upon  sod,  and  the  latter  when  grown  for  a 
series  of  years  in  one  place. 

Agrotians.    Cut  Worms. 

Order  Lepidoptera.    Family  NoctuidoR. 

Not  only  the  real  cut  worms  of  the  genera  Agrotis,  Hadena, 
and  Mamestra,  but  many  species  of  the  same  genera  that  do  not 
cut  off  the  food  as  do  the  typical  cut  worms,  are  often  injurious 
to  the  grasses.  From  the  very  nature  of  our  grasses  much  harm 
might  be  done,  and  yet  unless  it  were  very  great  go  unnoticed 
by  the  practical  man.  It  is  more  than  likely  that  with  the  more 
'intensive  agriculture  of  the  future,  made  necessary  by  a  more 


404  CUT  WORMS. 

dense  population,  note  will  be  taken  of  these  injuries  which  now 
are  unnoticed.  While  we  may  believe  that  most  of  our  cut 
worms  attack  and  destroy  many  a  spear  of  grass  in  pasture  and 
meadow,  we  actually  know  that  Agrotis  fennica  may  utterly 
devastate  whole  meadows,  as  it  has  done  in  parts  of  Michigan  for 
the  pa^t  two  years. 

These  gray,  sober  colored  noctuid  moths,  Fig. 
148,  lay  their  scores  of  white  eggs  upon  the  stems 
of  grasses.     The  larvae,  Fig.  149,  may  be  dirty 
white  or  variously  striped.     Those  which  spend 
the  day  beneath   the    ground    are 
more    frequently    light    colored. 
They  pupate   in  the    earth.     Fig. 
150  shows  the  pupa. 

The    moths   of  different   species 

m   war  ~~*~-  may  be  found  from  June  to  Octo- 

FIG.  143.  Agrotis  fennica  and  wing  ber.  Agrotis  fennica  is  seen  as  a 
moth  in  July.  It  is  probably  true 
of  all  the  species  that  the  eggs  are 
FiG~i«T  rW1St>  laid  soon  after  the  moths  appear. 
In  most  cases  these  hatch  the  same  season,  and  the 
larvae  become  partly  grown,  but  do  their  greatest 
FIG.  150.  mischief  the  following  May  and  June.  The  eggs 
of  A.  fennica  do  not  hatch  till  spring,  when  the  larvae  eat  raven- 
ously and  grow  very  rapidly.  So  we  see  that  in  all  cases  June  is 
the  dreaded  month  when  these  insects  lay  heavy  tribute  on  the 
produce  of  the  farmer. 

We  must  depend  on  the  natural  enemies  very  largely  to  over- 
come these  injurious  insects  in  our  grass  fields.  The  extent  of 
the  area  of  grass  fields,  the  number  of  insects  and  their  con- 
cealed condition  makes  all  kinds  of  known  warfare  impracticable. 
When  they  cover  a  field,  as  did  the  A.  fennica  the  meadows  in  Bay 
county.  Michigan,  we  may  adopt  the  same  remedy  as  in  case  of 


ARMY  WORM.  405 

the  white  grub,  give  up  the  fields  to  the  swine.  While  we  may 
bandage  our  grape-vines,  fruit  trees,  and  garden  plants,  and  thus 
protect  them,  and  while  we  may  bait  the  cut  worms  of  clean 
cultivated  corn  fields  with  bunches  of  grass  poisoned  with  the 
arsenites  and  thus  kill  them,  or  later  dig  them  out  at  a  profit, 
none  of  these  methods  are  available  in  the  meadow. 
Leucania  unipuncta,  Haw.  Army  Worm. 

Order  Lepidoptera.    Family  Noctuidae. 

This  incect  is  so  largely  the  prey  to  insect  enemies,  parasitic 
and  predaceous,  that  it  is  only  rarely  that  it  does  marked  injury. 
Yet  the  entomologist  knows  that  the  moths  are  very  common 
each  year,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  it  does  consider- 
able injury  in  our  grass  fields  every  season.  It  is  only  when  its 
numbers,  through  favorable  surroundings,  become  so  immensely 
numerous  as  to  make  it  necessary  for  the  caterpillars  to  swarm 
forth  from  the  meadows  to  get  food,  that  we  usually  take  note 
of  its  presence  or  become  conscious  of  its  power  for  mischief. 


FIG.  152. 


The  figures  show  well  the  appearance  of  the  insect  in  its  sev- 
ercl  stages.  The  moth,  Fig.  151,  is  yellowish-brown,  often  with 
a  greenish  tinge  with  a  descal  white  dot  on  each  front  wing, 
which  gives  the  specific  name. 

The  caterpillar,  Fig.  152,  is  striped  longitudinally  with  dark 
and  light  gray  lines.  It  pupates  like  all  noctuids  in  the  earth. 

The  moths  are  abundant  in  August  and  September.  The  eggs 
are  laid  in  the  sheaths  of  the  grass.  The  caterpillars  are  nearly 


406  WIRE  WORM. 

grown  in  July,  and  then  is  when  they  devastate  meadow  and  oat 
field. 

Here  as  elsewhere,  with  the  enemies  of  our  grasses,  we  must 
trust  largely  to  the  other  insects  and  birds  that  prey  upon  them. 
Usually  this  is  sufficient  to  so  reduce  their  numbers  that  their 
presence  causes  no  anxiety,  or  even  makes  itself  known  to  the 
farmer.  When  they  migrate,  in  armies,  threatening  meadow 
and  grain  field,  it  is  recommended  to  scatter  straw,  and  when 
they  become  involved  in  its  meshes  to  burn  them,  straw  and  all. 
Also  to  poison  with  the  arsenites  a  portion  of  the  grain  or  grass 
on  the  side  of  the  field  towards  which  the  army  is  advancing, 
and  thus  hope  by  wholesale  poisoning  to  save  a  portion  of  the  crop. 
This  has  usually  failed,  as  the  army  is  often  so  large  that  they 
can  devastate  acres  even  though  poisoned  in  this  manner.  The 
most  satisfactory  method  yet  recommended  has  proved  to  be  the 
furrow  or  ditch.  This  is  left  steep  on  the  side  toward  the  field 
to  be  protected,  and  to  have  holes,  like  post  holes,  dug  in  it  at 
frequent  intervals.  These  holes  receive  the  caterpillars,  and  the 
latter,  by  use  of  a  convenient  stick,  large  at  one  end,  may  be 
quickly  killed,  and  so  the  holes  made  ready  for  a  fresh  lot  of  vic- 
tims. A  board  fence  of  slight  height  has  been  made  to  take  the 
place  of  the  ditch  in  some  cases  with  good  results.  Of  course 
the  encouragement  of  our  insectivorous  birds  will  aid  here,  as 
everywhere,  to  help  solve  this  insect  problem. 

Elaters.    Wire  Worms. 

Order  Coleoptera.    Family  Elateridae. 

The  wire  worms,  like  the  white  grubs,  are  the  larvas  of  beetles, 
live  between  two  and  three  years  in  the  earth,  and  by  feeding 
upon  the  roots  often  do  great  injury  to  cereal  crops,  corn,  and 
though  not  so  much  dreaded  in  meadows  and  pastures,  they  are, 
beyond  question,  often  quite  injurious  to  nearly  all  our  grasses. 


\ 


WIRE  WORM.  407 

The  various  species  of  spring  beetles,  Fig.  153, 
are  seen  in  June,  and  not  infrequently  fly  into  our 
rooms.  Their  long,  slim  form,  usually  brown  color, 
and  especially  their  habit  of  springing  when  placed 
on  their  back,  which  is  effected  by  a  sort  of  ventral 
spring  pole  arrangement,  give  ready  means  to  iden- 
tify the  beetles.  The  long,  cylindri- 


.    FIG.  154.  cal  grubs,  Fig.   154,  with  their  six 

jointed  thoracic  feet,  are  also  hard  to  mistake.     Indeed  the  name 
wire  worms  is  very  appropriate. 

As  in  case  of  white  grubs  the  eggs  are  laid  in  meadows  and 
pastures  about  the  roots  of  grasses,  where  for  three  years  the 
slender  grubs  eat  and  grow.  "While  complaint  is  not  usually  made 
of  injury  to  grass,  yet  such  injury  must  be  common  and  exten- 
sive. The  grass  blades  are  so  countless  that  though  numerous 
plants  are  killed  they  are  not  missed;  but  let  the  sward  be 
plowed,  and  the  second  year  plant  corn,  or  sow  oats  or  wheat, 
and  if  the  wire  worms  are  present — they  are  now  rapidly  ap- 
proaching maturity — they  often  do  incalculable  damage,  ruining, 
it  may  be,  whole  fields  of  grain.  That  they  do  not  more  injury 
the  first  year  after  plowing  is  not  so  strange.  It  is  the  habit  of 
the  grubs  of  this  family  of  beetles  to  eat  rotten  or  decaying 
wood,  etc.,  and  so  it  is  quite  likely  that  these  wire  worms,  with 
changed  habits,  really  prefer  a  diet  of  decaying  roots  for  a 
change,  especially  as  it  may  the  better  satisfy  the  cravings  of  the 
old  time  inherited  appetite.  With  the  exception  of  buckwheat, 
peas  and  beans,  there  is  hardly  a  crop  but  what  is  levied  upon 
by  these  insatiable  wire  worms.  The  only  recommendation  that 
our  present  knowledge  offers  to  resist  these  terrible  pests  is 
either  to  summer  fallow  for  one  one  year  in  hopes  to  starve  the 
grubs,  or  else  to  sow  some  crop  that  is  distasteful  to  them  the 
second  year  after  plowing  the  green  sward. 


CHINCH   BUG. 


Blissus  lencopterus,  Say.    Chinch  Bug. 

Order  Hemiptera.    Family  Ligceidce. 

This  destructive  bug,  though  very  small,  is  often  so  terribly  in- 
jurious that  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri  and  Kansas  it  is  often 
the  author  of  millions  of  dollar's  worth  of  damage,  and  that  some 
times  in  a  single  State.  What  has  been  said  of  the  other  insects  al- 
ready referred  to  as  to  damage  to  grass,  corn  and  wheat  applies 
to  this  as  weL.  That  the  chinch  bug  is  more  susceptible  to  sea- 
sonal peculiarities — especially  wet — than  most  insects,  is  well 
known.  While  in  very  wet  years  it  does  little  damage,  in  dry 
years  it  sweeps  as  "  with  the  besom  of  destruction  "  the  great 
prairies  of  the  West.  That  it  does  so  little  damage  in  Michigan, 
New  York  and  the  East  is  doubtless  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
climate  is  too  rigorous  for  it.  Very  likely  the  hibernating  bug 
succumbs  to  the  severity  of  our  long,  cold  winters. 

This  insect,  Fig.  155, 
is  hardly  4mm  long, 
or  less  than  3-20  of  an 
inch.  Its  color  is  black 
with  white  wings 
marked  with  black 
spots.  The  bugs  hiber- 
nate in  winter.  In  May  they  swarm  forth  in  nuptial  flight,  and 
soon  after  the  egg  laying  begins.  There  are  two  or  three  broods, 
so  from  June  on  they  will  be  seen  in  all  stages.  The  wingless 
larvae,  the  short  winged  and  equally  active  and  hungry  pupae 
and  the  full  fledged  imago  will  all  be  seen  sucking  the  juices 
from  the  plants  at  one  and  the  same  time. 

Neatness  in  farm  operations,  not  leaving  corn-stalks  and  rub- 
bish in  the  fields  to  protect  and  harbor  the  bugs  in  winter,  is 
about  the  only  remedy  possible.  Prof.  Forbes,  whose  admirable 
researches  and  suggestions  have  been  so  valuable,  has  found  that 


Chinch  bug. 


LOCUSTS,   OR  GRAY  GRASSHOPPERS.  409 

the  kerosene  emulsion  will  kill  the  bugs,   but  owing  to  their 
numbers  and  habits  it  is  hardly  a  practical  remedy. 

Caloptenus — many  species.  Locusts,  or  Gray  Grasshop- 
pers. 

Order  Orthoptera.     Family  Acrididce. 

Although  no  grass  insect  is  more  serious  in  its  destructiveness 
than  the  Western  locust,  or  grasshopper,  Caloptenus  spraetus. 
Thorn.,  when  it  comes  to  make  its  presence  felt,  yet  from  the 
fact  that  it  can  never  attack  the  vegetation  except  in  a  limited 
area  West,  and  even  there  comes  only  rarely  to  scourge  the  coun- 
try, it  perhaps  on  the  whole  is  not  so  serious  to  our  forage  crops 
as  the  insects  already  referred  to.  Our  common,  red-legged 
grasshopper,  Caloptenus  femur-rubrum,  De  G.,  with  several  other 
species,  often  do  very  serious  harm  in  our  Eastern  States.  Yet 
the  fact  that  they  come  only  rarely  in  great  numbers,  and  then 
scarcely  ever  two  years  in  succession,  makes  the  insect  less 
dreaded  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 


FIG.  156.  FIG.  157. 

Fig.  156  shows  the  Western  locust,  and  Fig.  15 7  our  red-legged 
locust,  which  insects  resemble  each  other  very  closely.  The 
principal  difference  is  the  longer  wings  of  the  C.  spraetus.  Like 
the  Chinch  bug  the  transformations  of  these  insects  are  incom- 
plete. The  larvae  in  early  summer,  the  pupa  in  mid-summer, 
and  the  imago  in  late  summer  all  look  alike,  and  have  identical 
habits  as  to  their  food.  They  differ  only  in  size  and  develop- 
ment of  wings,  which  are  at  first  wholly  absent,  and  then  appear 
for  a  time  only  as  stubs,  or  mere  pads.  The  imago  in  August 
and  September  lay  their  large  eggs  in  the  ground.  In  all  stages 
they  are  ravenous  and  indiscriminate  feeders. 

Dr.  C.  V.  Riley,  in  his  elaborate  investigation  of  this  insect, 
52 


410 


THE  VAGABOND   CRAMBUS. 


names  and  describes  many  mammals,  birds,  and  other  insects 
that  destroy  this  pest.  He  also  describes  many  mechanical  ap- 
pliances for  the  destruction  of  the  pest.  In  California  the  >past 
season  locusts  which  were  very  common  and  harmful  were  de- 
stroyed by  use  of  poison.  Bran,  sugar  and  arsenic  were  mixed 
and  left  where  the  insects  could  gain  access  to  the  mixture. 
Whether  this  can  be  made  available  in  fields  to  protect  grass, 
oats,  etc.,  is  yet  to  be  decided  by  actual  trial. 
Crambus  Tulgivagellus,  Clem.  The  Yagabond  Crambus. 

Order  Lepedoptera.    Family  Pyralidae. 

This  insect  is  not  rare  in  Michigan,  nor  in  other  Northern 
States,  yet  it  has  rarely  attracted  attention  as  a  serious  pest  in 
agriculture.  In  1881  the  pastures  in  parts  of  Northern  New- 
York  were  quite  seriously  damaged  by  this  pest.  It  belongs  to 
the  same  family  as  the  bee  moth,  and  to  the  same  genus  as  the 
corn-root  web  worm,  Crambus  zeellus  Fernald,  which  has  done 
considerable  damage  in  Illinois  the  past  summer  (1885). 


The  moth,  d,  Fig.  158,  expands  2.5  c  m  (1  inch)  and  like  all  of 
the  species  of  thk  genus  has  a  slender  body.  The  front  wings 
are  of  a  dull  yellow  color.  There  are  rows  of  black  scales  be- 
tween the  veins  and  a  sub-marginal  row  of  black  dots  near  the 


THE  VAGABOND  CRAMBUS.  411 

outer  border.  The  fringe  has  a  golden  reflection.  The  hind 
wings  are  pale  yellow,  with  long  paler  fringe.  The  thorax  and 
abdomen  is  yellow.  The  projecting  beak — the  palpi — which 
gives  the  name  snout  moths  to  this  family  is  well  marked. 

The  very  small  eggs,  g,  Fig.  158,  are  yellow  till  near  hatching- 
when  they  turn  pink.  Like  the  eggs  of  many  butterflies  the} 
are  ribbed,  both  longitudinally  and  transversely.  The  transverse 
ridges  are  less  marked  than  the  others.  The  eggs  are  .7  m  m  by 
.3mm.  The  color  of  the  caterpillar,  a,  Pig.  158,  is  dull  green, 
with  shining  black  head.  There  are  brown  tubercles  along  the 
body,  each  of  which  bears  a  black  hair.  When  full  grown  the 
larva  is  about  2  c  m  (£  of  an  inch)  in  length.  The  cocoon, 
b,  Fig.  158,  is  spun  close  to  the  earth.  It  is  curved,  attached  to 
grass,  and  varies  much  in  size.  The  average  length  is  2.25  c  m, 
or  9  of  an  inch.  Some  cocoons  are  much  enlarged  at  one  end. 
The  pale  brown  pupa  is  much  the  same  as  chrysalids  of  moths 
in  general.  It  is  1  c  m  (.4  of  an  inch)  in  length. 

The  eggs  are  deposited  in  dry  pastures  and  meadows  in  late 
August.  They  seem  to  be  merely  dropped  on  the  ground.  They 
hatch  in  a  little  over  a  week,  and  the  young  caterpillars  eat 
sparingly,  but  do  little  harm  ere  they  go  into  winter  quarters. 
They  commence  to  feed  as  soon  as  the  grass  starts  in  spring. 
The  brown  spots  in  the  grass  fields  where  all  has  been  eaten  to 
the  very  roots,  which  latter  have  not  been  disturbed,  show  to  the 
unobservant  even  that  a  serious  enemy  is  at  hand.  When  very 
numerous  whole  acres  are  fairly  mown  off  close  jto  the  ground. 
While  they  prefer  June  grass  they  will  eat  any  grass,  and  even  oats 
and  wheat.  Like  the  corn-root  Crambus  they  spin  a  web  in  which 
they  live  while  devastating  the  meadows.  They  feed  by  night, 
and  when  not  feeding  are  concealed  in  a  cylindrical  case  of 
pieces  of  grass  and  fecal  pelets  held  together  by  silken  threads. 
The  most  damage  is  done  in  May.  Often  the  caterpillars  gather 
in  immense  numbers  on  the  trunks  of  trees  near  the  ground. 


412  THE  VAGABOND   CRAMBUS. 

They  spin  their  cocoons  late  in  May,  which  are  placed  uprignt 
in  the  ground  just  below  the  surface.  They  do  not  pupate  till 
the  first  of  August,  and  do  not  emerge  as  moths  till  late  in  the 
same  month. 

Prof.  J.  A.  Lintner,  who  has  given  an  excellent  account  of 
this  pest  in  his  1st  An.  Kep.,  speaks  of  several  enemies,  parasitic 
and  predaceous,  which  are  probably  what  keep  this  pest  from  do 
ing  greater  damage.  He  also  suggests  burning  by  firing  the 
pastures.  He  further  recommends  trying  a  liberal  application  of 
lime,  plaster,  ashes,  and  especially  gas-lime.  Plowing  in  autumn 
would  doubtless  destroy  the  eggs.  We  may  reasonably  hope  that 
we  shall  not  have  frequent  attacks  of  t'his  insect ;  possibly  it  will 
never  do  so  much  damage  again.  Yet  it  has  come  once,  and  so 
we  may  at  least  fear  that  it  will  again,  and  to  be  fore-warned  is 
to  be  fore-armed. 

Bef  ore.  closing  it  is  well  to  state  that  in  company  with  the 
above  Prof.  Lintner  found  a  caterpillar,  the  larva  of  a  moth  com- 
mon in  Michigan  and  all  through  the  North.  It  is  Nephelodes 
violans.  I  have  space  only  to  state  that  it  was  not  very  injurious, 
though  may  increase  and  become  so  at  any  time.  What  has 
been  said  as  to  habits,  and  especially  of  remedies,  in  relation  to 
the  Crambus  and  army  worms,  will  probably  be  true  of  this  in- 
sect if  it  should  ever  become  a  serious  enemy. 

I  have  not  space  to  describe  more  of  the  insects  noxious  to  our 
grasses.  Those  described  are  the  only  ones  which  have  given 
anxiety,  and  while  the  others  may  become  more  numerous  and 
therefore  harmful,  they  are  not  likely  to  do  so.  In  connection 
with  the  list  given  above  I  have  referred  to  authors  who  have 
written  upon  each  insect,  and  in  many  cases  not  only  are  the  de- 
scriptions full  but  excellent  illustrations  add  to  the  interest  and 
value  of  the  treatises.  It  is  not  unlikely  tha*  new  enemies  will 
attack  our  forage  crops ;  but  if  so  they  will  almost  certainly  be 
like  one  or  more  of  the  old  familiar  ones,  and  so  by  studying 


THE  FUNGI  OF  FORAGE  PLANTS.  413 

their  habits  and  determining  their  natural  history  we  shall  at 
once  know  which  of  the  old  and  well  tried  remedies  to  adopt. 


CHAPTER  XVIL 
THE  FUNGI  OF  FORAGE  PLANT8L 


BY  WILLIAM  TRELEASE,   D.   SC. 


Grasses  afford  a  nidus  for  the  development  of  a  large  number 
of  fungi,  so  that  they  are  a  favorite  collecting  ground  with  stu- 
dents of  these  plants;  but  the  greater  number  of  species  are 
found  on  dry  stems  and  leaves,  which  they  seize  upon,  as  a  rule, 
only  after  their  death,  and  though  the  number  of  truly  parasitic 
species  is  by  no  means  small,  there  are  but  few  that  seriously 
injure  valuable  grasses.  The  number  of  noxious  species  on  clo- 
vers and  other  forage  plants  of  the  pea-family  is  also  small ; 
hence  this  chapter  includes  a  few  which  are  of  such  frequent  oc- 
currence as  to  attract  general  attention. 

For  the  most  part  the  fungi  of  forage  plants  are  directly  inju- 
rious by  weakening  them  and  appropriating  to  themselves  the 
food  needed  for  making  a  good  growth ;  but  they  likewise  lower 
the  nutritive  value  of  the  crop  that  is  produced.  In  cases  where 
seed  is  an  object,  the  loss  is  even  greater,  since  the  yield  of  dis- 
eased plants  is  greatly  lessened,  while  the  quality  of  their  seed  is 
always  poor.  The  annual  loss  in  our  meadows  and  pastures  due 
to  these  causes  cannot  be  stated,  from  the  lack  of  reliable  statis- 
tics, but  in  some  seasons  a  moderate  estimate  places  it  in  the 
millions. 

Besides  these  direct  injuries  to  the  crops  the  fungi  of  grasses 
are  the  cause  of  a  very  considerable  loss  to  the  farmer  in  another 
way.  Ergot  and  corn-smut  have  long  been  known  to  possess  ac- 


414  CORN-SMUT.      LEAF-SMUT  OF  TIMOTHY. 

tive  medicinal  and  poisonous  properties,  and  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  abortion  and  certain  diseases  of  the  feet  of  cattle  fol- 
low the  prolonged  use  of  ergotized  hay  or  pasturage.  How  many 
of  the  smuts  and  other  fungi  of  grasses  possess  similar  or  other 
detrimental  properties  is  at  present  merely  a  matter  of  conjec- 
ture ;  but  some  of  them  occur  in  sufficient  quantity  to  merit  sus- 
picion until  they  have  been  shown  to  be  harmless. 

SMUTS. 

1.  Corn-smut  (Ustilago  zece  mays,  D.  C.).     Order  Basidiomy- 
cetes.     Sub-order    Ustilagineae.     Forming  galls,   often  of  large 
size,  in  the  leaves  and  other  parts  of  Indian  corn  and  teosinte, 
that  are  finally  transformed  into  dusty  masses  of  brown  spores. 

No  fungus  is  more  widely  distributed  or  better  known  than 
corn-smut.  Like  other  smuts,  its  germinating  spores  attack 
young  plants,  its  mycelium  or  spawn  making  its  way  upward 
through  their  growing  tissues  without  producing  any  evident  ef- 
fect until  it  prepares  to  fruit,  when  it  increases  and  leads  to  the 
formation  of  the  smut-galls,  that  are  ultimately  filled  with 
myriads  of  round  brown  spores,  each  densely  covered  by  short, 
sharp  spines.  These  spores,  which  measure  9-13  micro-millime- 
ters, preserve  their  power  of  germination  for  several  years,  or,  in 
fresh  barnyard  manure,  etc.,  they  develop  at  once,  multiplying 
indefinitely  by  the  production  of  yeast-like  secondary  spores, 
each  of  which  has  the  power  of  infecting  a  seedling  corn  plant. 

Gathering  and  burning  the  smut-galls  and  smutty  ears,  while 
they  are  still  green,  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  spores  in  the 
soil ,  rotating  the  crop  when  smut  has  become  firmly  established 
in  a  field;  treating  seed  corn  with  copperas-water  and  lime,  etc., 
before  planting ;  and  using  only  old,  well-rotted  manure  or  arti- 
ficial fertilizers,  have  all  been  proposed  as  preventives  of  smut. 

2.  The  leaf-smut  of  Timothy  (Tilletia  striaeformis,  Westd.) 
Forming  black,  smutty  lines  in  the  leaves  of  Timothy  and  other 


THE   LEAF-SMUT  OF  TIMOTHY. 


415 


grasses,  whicu  are  finally  reduced  to  brown  shreds,  covered  with 
dusty  spores. 

The  first  appearance  of  this  disease  is  in.  the 
formation  of  lead-colored,  thickened  lines, 
about  1-64  in.  wide  and  1-16  to  £  in.  long,  be- 
tween the  nerves  of  the  leaf.  The  epidermis, 
which  at  first  covers  them  and  gives  them  their 
gray  color,  soon  breaks  away,  revealing  a  pow- 
dery mass  of  black-brown  spores,  which  are  ir- 
regularly rounded  or  egg-shaped,  and  closely 
studded  with  short  spines.  They  measure  10- 
12  micro-millimeters,  and  in  their  microscop- 
FIG.  159.  ical  characters  closely  resemble  the  spores  of 

the  corn-smut. 

Similar  black  lines  are  formed  in  the  leaves  of  species  of  Glyce- 
ria  by  Ustilago  longissima  (Sow.)  which  has  smooth  brown  spores, 
3.5  to  7  micro-millimeters  in  diameter,  and  in  the  leaves  of  wild 
rye  and  other  grasses  by  Urocystis  occulta  (Wall.)  the  dark 
brown  opaque  spores  of  which  measure  10-20  micro-millimeters, 
and  usually  occur  in  clusters  of  2-4,  closely  surrounded  by  masses 
of  half-round,  colorless  cells  of  slightly  greater  diameter. 

Ustilago  hypodytes  (Schl.)  occurs  on  the  stem  of  quack  grass 
and  other  species,  usually  forming  black  smut  masses  inside  the 
leaf -sheath,  and  U.  grandis  (Fr.)  causes  cat-tail-like  swellings  on 
the  interned es  of  the  reed. 

The  fruit  of  many  grasses  is  replaced  by  otker  smut  fungi,  the 
number  of  which  is  very  considerable.  The  commonest  are: 
Ustilago  panici  glauci  (Wall.),  very  abundant  in  autumn  on 
pigeon  grass;  U.  rabenhorstiana  (Kuehn),  on  crab  grasses  and 
sand  burs;  and  U.  segetum,  (P.),  in  oats,  barley,  wheat,  etc. 

Draining  the  soil  well,  transferring  the  crops  to  new  land 
when  they  have  begun  to  smut  badly,  and  exercising  care  with 
respect  to  manure  are  preventive  measures. 


418 


GRASS-RUST. 
BUSTS. 


3    Grass-rust,  (Puccinia  graminis,  P.)     Order  Basidiomy 
cete's.     Sub-order  Uredineae. 


FIG.  160.— Several  stages  of  grass-rust.  A,  young  aecidium  fruit;  x,  section  of  Bar- 
berry  leaf;  a  p,  secidium  fruit;  8  p,  spermagonia;  77.,  a  mass  of  teleutospores  on  a  leaf 
of  a  grass;  777.,  three  uredospores,  u  r;  with  one  teleutospore,  t.— (Prom  DeBarry.) 


Forming  orange-red,  powdery  spots  and  lines  on  the  leaves 
and  stems  of  cereals  and  meadow-grasses,  that  give  place  later  to 
dead-black  velvety  lines. 

The  sheaths  and  culms  of  the  smaller  grasses,  especially  quack 
grasses  and  red-top,  are  very  often  attacked  by  this  rust  (called 
mildew  and  brand  in  England),  which  produces  the  same  dis- 


GRASS-RUST. 


417 


astrous  effects  on  them  as  on  wheat.  The  red  rust  or  uredo 
state  appears  from  early  spring  until  fall.  It  consists  of  micro- 
scopic one-celled  rough  spores,  borne  on  branches  of  a  myceli- 


FIG.  161.— Grass-rust.  A,  germinating  teleutospore,  t;  B,  promycelium,  with  sporl- 
dia:  C,  s  p,  sporidium,  germinating  on  the  lower  side  of  a  leaf;  M,  a  germinating 
uredospore. — (From  DeBarry.) 

um  that  vegetates  within  the  grass,  and  only  appears  on  the  sur- 
face to  fruit,  which  propagate  the  disease  rapidly  in  damp  warm 
weather.  Toward  the  end  of  the  season  the  same  mycelium 
bears  a  second  form  of  fruit — two-celled  teleutospores  or  winter- 
spores — that  form  dense  elongated  black  cushions  where  they 
break  through  the  epidermis,  often  covering  the  greater  part  of 


418  CLOVER-RUST. 

the  dead  stem.  These  spores  germinate  the  next  spring,  when 
they  produce  secondary  spores  that  are  said  by  an  English  ex- 
perimenter to  infect  very  young  grass.leaves,  in  which  they  forma 
mycelium  that  quickly  fruits  in  red  rust.  The  winter-spores  have 
long  been  held  to  produce  a  mycelium  in  young  barberry  leaves, 
on  which  the  common  yellow  cluster-cups  appear  as  a  result, — 
their  spores  again  attacking  grasses  and  forming  a  mycelium 
that  bears  little  of  the  red  rust,  but  fruits  almost  exclusively  by 
n/inter-spores. 

Other  grasses  are  subject  to  the  attacks 
of  rust-fungi  belonging  to  other  species. 
P.  coronata  (Cda.),  the  common  oat-rust, 
and  P.  rubigo  vera,  (D.  C.)  the  barley- 
rust,  are  not  infrequent  on  grasses,  the 
latter  on  the  beautiful  squirrel-tail  grass. 
They  produce  smaller  clusters  of  uredo- 
spores,  and  the  cushions  of  teleutospores  are  long,  covered  by 
the  epidermis  of  the  plant,  and  not  so  black.  They  are  also 
more  frequent  on  the  blade  than  on  the  sheath  of  the  leaves. 
P.  magnusiana  (Koem.),  P.  phragmitis  (Schum),  and  P.  arundi- 
nacea  (D.  C.),  are  found  on  the  reed.  These  species  all  have 
cluster-cups  or  aecidia  on  other  species  of  plants.  The  rust 
of  corn  is  P.  maydis  (Carrad).  The  tall  gramma  grass  is 
infested  by  P.  vexans  (Farlow) :  P.  andropogi  (Schw.),  occurs 
on  broom-grass;  P.  arundinarice  (Schw.),  on  fall  marsh  grass; 
and  P.  cynodontis  (Desm.),  on  Bermuda  grass.  The  common 
rust  of  old  witch-grass  or  tickle-grass  is  P.  emaculata  (Schw.) 
etc.  None  of  these  species  are  known  to  produce  cluster-cups. 
4.  Clover-rust  ( Uromyces  trifolii,  A.  &  S.)  Producing  mi- 
nute white  cluster-cups,  pale  brown  uredo-pustules  and  darker 
brown  teleutospore-cushions,  1-64  in.  in  diameter,  on  the  leaf- 
stalks and  blades  of  clover,  especially  white  clover. 


CLOVE-RRUST.  41» 

The  clover-rust  bears  its  clus- 
ter-cups on  the  same  plant  with 
the  other  forms.  They  appear 
in  early  summer,  in  small  clus- 
ters, especially  on  the  stalk  and 
veins  of  the  leaves.  The  later 
cluster-cups  are  accompanied  or 

^HHa  dfl™^'  followed  by  small  round  or  oval 

\  pustules  of   rough  brown  uredo- 

^^•1   HlH^  spores,    that   are  partly  covered 

^^   I  JHr  °y  the  torn,  lead-colored  epider- 

FlGi  163>  mis  of  the  leaf.     Both  of  these 

forms  immediately  reproduce  a  mycelium, 
similar  to  that  from  which  they  originated, 
in  other  leaves.  The  winter  spores  oc- 
cur in  slightly  darker  clusters  in  the  fall, 
and  germinate  the  following  spring.  They 
FIG.  164.  differ  from  the  corresponding  spores  of 

Puccinia  in  being  one-celled,  and  resemble  the  uredospores  of 
the  same  species,  except  that  they  are  somewhat  darker  brown, 
smooth,  and  often  furnished  with  a  blunt  point  at  the  end. 

U.  medicaginis  falcatae  (D.  C.),  is  a  related  rust,  found  in  all 
its  stages  on  alfalfa  and  none-such,  and  on  the  wild  rabbit's-foot 
clover  and  hop-clover.  Its  winter  spores  are  striped  by  longi- 
tudinal ridges.  Other  species  of  Uromyces  are  found  on  differ- 
ent grasses.  U.  dactylidis  (Otth.)  occurs,  in  Europe,  on  orchard 
grass,  the  taller  fescue,  etc.,  and  is  represented  in  this  country  by 
several  forms  on  a  number  of  grasses.  Its  cluster-cups  are  found 
on  the  butter-cup.  U.  acuminatus  (Arthur)  is  common  on  fall- 
marsh  grass ;  U.  spartinae  (Farlow)  on  rush-salt  grass ;  and  U. 
Peckianus  on  the  smaller  salt  grass  (Distichlis  maritima).  These 
species  are  not  known  to  have  a  cluster-cup  stage. 

Burning  over  meadows  and  fields  covered  with  rusty  stubble ; 
a  proper  succession  of  crops ;  and  the  destruction  of  plants  that 


420  ERGOT. 

serve  as  hosts  for  the  cluster-cup  stages  of  rusts,  are  the  best 
methods  of  keeping  them  within  check. 

ASCOMYCETES. 

5.  Ergot.  (Claviceps,  Sp.  Sclerotium  clavus  of  authors.) 
Black,  purple  or  dark  gray  spurs  in  the  flowers  of  cereals  and  of 
various  wild  and  cultivated  grasses. 

The  officinal  ergot,  to  be  found  in  most  rye-fields  toward  the 
end  of  summer,  appears  in  the  form  of  curved  purple  or  black 
spurs,  often  an  inch  long  and  3-16  in.  in  diameter,  which  replace 
the  grain  in  one  or  more  flowers  of  a  spike,  thus  giving  rise  to  the 
popular  name  of  spurred  rye,  often  applied  to  it.  Spurs  of  the 
same  nature,  but  usually  shorter  and  stouter,  are  also  common 
in  the  heads  of  wheat.  Similar  bodies,  varying  much  in  size, 
shape  and  color,  are  found  in  the  flowers  of  many  grasses.  OD 
the  rush-salt  grass  they  are  very  long  and  slender,  and  rather 
pale.  On  wild  rice  they  are  short,  and  even  stouter  than  the 
spurs  of  wheat ;  while  on  smaller  grasses,  like  red-top,  Timothy, 
blue-grass,  etc.,  they  are  much  smaller,  and  closely  resemble  the 
pellets  of  mice. 

These  spurs  are  the  resting  form,  or  sclerotia,  of  a  fungus 
which  appears  at  the  base  of  the  young  grain,  when  the  grasses 
are  in  bloom.  As  it  grows  it  gradually  takes  the  place  of  the 
grain,  the  remains  of  which  are  pushed  up  at  its  end.  While 
young,  the  fungus  gives  off  a  sweetish,  ill-smelling  fluid,  that 
contains  myriads  of  microscopic  spores  which  are  carried  from 
plant  to  plant  by  flies,  beetles  and  other  insects  that  feed  on  the 
fluid,  and  so  play  an  important  part  in  spreading  the  disease. 
When  the  spurs  have  reached  their  growth  they  harden,  and  fall 
to  the  ground,  where,  as  a  general  thing,  they  remain  unchanged 
till  the  next  spring,  when  each  bears  a  number  of  small,  stalked, 

FIG.  165.— 1, 2, 3,  4,  Grasses  affected  with  Ergot  appearing  as  black  spurs.     (From 
the  U.  S.  Dept  of  Agrl.) 


ERGOT. 


pink   fruit-bodies,  in  which  spores   are  produced   at  about  the 
time  when  grasses  are  coming  into  bloom. 

Botanists  recognize  several  species  of  ergot  by  the  form  of 
their  spring  fruit;  but  the  differences  between  them  do  not 
much  concern  their  life-history,  so  that  they  need  not  be  consid- 
ered separately.  From  their  habit  of  attacking  only  the  flowers, 
they  do  not  affect  the  general  health  of  the  grasses  they  grow  on, 
while  as  a  rule  they  are  not  abundant  enough  to  seriously  lessen 
the  yield  of  seed. 

Ergot  has  long  been  em- 
ployed in  medicine,  be- 
cause of  its  action  on  the 
uterus.  That  it  should 
cause  abortion  when  fed 
to  stock  is,  therefore,  not 
surprising.  Nothing  can 
be  more  misleading  than 
the  popular  belief  that  er- 
go t  does  not  occur  on 
meadow  grasses  in  suf- 
ficient quantity  to  be  dan- 
gerous. In  examining  sus- 
pected hay  from  several  of  the  western  States  the  Veterinarian 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  found  2-6  per 
cent,  of  its  entire  weight  to  be  ergot.  An  equally  erroneous  and 
common  belief  is  that  in  pastures  ergot  cannot  mature  because 
the  grass  is  so  closely  cropped  that  it  cannot  flower.  Under 
close  grazing  most  grasses  produce  scattering  flowers,  when  very 
small,  and  at  times  nearly  every  one  of  these  is  ergotized. 

Not  long  since  considerable  excitement  was  caused  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  what  was  taken  for  " foot-and-mouth  disease"  in 


THE  CAT-TAIL  GRASS  FUNGUS.  423 

Kansas  and  other  parts  of  the  West ,  but  on  investigation  it  was 
found  that  the  sloughing  of  the  hoofs  and  other  symptoms  were 
the  result  of  ergotism,  due  to  the  foul  hay  on  which  the  cattle 
had  been  fed.  Similar  cases  have  occurred  in  other  parts  of  the 
country,  and  in  Europe  the  use  of  flour  made  from  ergotized 
grain  has  occasionally  given  rise  to  epidemics  of  a  similar  nature 
among  men. 

However  it  may  be  as  regards  abortion,  ergot  does  not  usually 
occur  abundantly  enough  in  closely  grazed  pastures  to  cause  this 
trouble.  It  has  been  suggested  that  it  may  be  prevented  from 
occurring  to  a  dangerous  extent  in  hay  by  cutting  grass  as  soon 
as  it  comes  to  bloom,  and  curing  it  before  the  ergot  has  ma- 
tured. 

Yellowish-white,  irregularly  rounded  bodies,  with  a  checked 
surface,  occurring  in  the  flowers  of  Paspalum  laeve  are  Spermoe- 
dia  paspali  (Fr.),  the  sclerotium  of  an  entirely  different  fungus. 

6.  The  cat-tail  grass  fungus,  (Epichlbe-typMna,  P.)  Form- 
ing a  white  or  yellow  coating  around  the  upper  leaf-sheaths  of 

This  pretty  fungus  is  found  on  rather  young  plants 
through  the  entire  open  season.  The  velvety  ring^ 
which  it  forms  about  the  sheath  consists  at  first  of  a 
loose  mycelium,  rooted  in  the  tissues  of  the  grass, 
which  bears  an  abundance  of  conidia,  or  summer- 
spores,  by  which  other  plants  are  infected.  As  the- 
season  goes  on  this  thickens  into  a  yellow  or  waxy 
mass,  while  its  surface  becomes  uneven  by  the  eleva- 
tion of  minute  points,  each  containing,  when  ripe,  a 

FIG.  167. "    cluster  of  asci,  or  spore-sacs,  filled  with  spores. 

In  Europe,  meadow  grasses,  and  especially  Timothy,  are  some- 


434  THE    BLACK-SPOT   DISEASE. 

times  extensively  attacked  by  this  parasite,  but  in  America  it 
has  not  been  noticed  to  any  great  extent  on  the  more  valuable 
species — its  presence  being  possibly  overlooked  in  meadows  be- 
cause concealed  by  the  spreading  blades  above. 

A  black  fungus  related  to  this,  which  occurs  on  grass,  is  Hy- 
pocrella  hypoxylon  (Pk.) 

7.  The  black-spot  disease  of  grass,  (Phyllachora  graminis, 
P.)     Coal-black  spots  usually  under  1-32  in.  wide,  and  l-32-£  in. 
long,  on  the  leaves  of  grasses ;  especially  conspicuous  on  the  up- 
per side. 

This  is  one  of  the  commonest  and  most  no- 
ticeable of  grass-diseases,  especially  toward 
the  end  of  the  season,  but  does  little  harm  to 
valuable  species.  It  is  most  abundant  on 
quack  grass,  hedgehog  grass  and  the  broad - 
leaved  Panicum.  The  black  spots  are  com- 
posed of  dense  mycelium.  In  them,  usually 
after  the  death  of  the  leaf,  oval  colorless  spores 
FIG.  168.  '  are  formed  in  asci.  These  spores  carry  the 
species  over  the  winter.  Smaller  spores  (stylospores)  are  pro- 
duced in  the  same  spots  earlier,  and  serve  for  summer  propaga- 
tion. If  the  disease  should  prove  troublesome,  the  grass  may  be 
cut  early  before  the  fungus  develops,  and  the  meadow  should  be 
burned  over  on  the  approach  of  cold  weather  to  destroy  the  form- 
ing winter  spores.  (Fig.  168  illustrates  the  above  species.) 

8.  The  black-spot  disease  of  clover,  (Phyllachora  trifolli, 
P.)     On  the  lower  side  of  clover  leaves,  forming  at  first  dull-black 
patches,  often  £  in.  across;  later  occurring  in  the  form  of  slightly 
glossy-black  dots,  1.64  in.  in  diameter,  on  small  whitish  or  pale- 
brown  spots.     (See  Fig.  169.) 


THE  BLACK-SPOT  DISEASE  OF  CLOVER. 


In  the  earlier  part  of  the  season 
small  whitish  or  pale-brown  spots 
appear  in  the  leaf,  which  contains  the 
mycelium  of  a  fungus.  This  fruits 
on  the  lower  surface,  producing  num- 
erous tufts  of  necklace-shaped  threads, 
each  of  which  ends  in  a  2-celled,  egg- 
shaped  conidia-spore.  These  tufts 
of  threads,  which,  like  the  spores,  are 
of  a  deep  brown  color,  are  packed  so 
closely  together  as  to  completely  cover 
the  spots,  though  under  a  hand  lens 
FIG.  169.  they  can  be  distinguished  as  separate 

panules.  To  the  naked  eye  they  appear  dead-black.  Later 
in  the  season  similar  spots  are  occupied  by  small,  coal-black 
fruits  that  contain  stylospores.  Winter  spores,  produced  in  asci, 
are  not  known. 

The  conidial  form  of  this  fungus 
(called  Polythrincium  trifolii)  is 
especially  common  on  white  clover, 
though  both  forms  are  at  times  found 
abundantly  on  red  clover  and  other 
species.  Kuhn  suggests  growing 
grass  with  the  clover  as  a  means  of 
lessening  its  injury.  (See  Fig.  170.) 


Fia.  170. 


54 


Fi«.  171. 


426  VIOLET  ROOT-FUNGUS.      GRASS   MILDEW. 

Red  clover  is,  also,  often  marked  in  the  summer  and  fall  by" 
similar  but  darker  brown  spots,  bearing  in  the  center  of  each  a 
brown  cup,  scarcely.  1.32  in.  in  diameter,  that  opens  irregularly 
at  the  top  and  so  allows  the  escape  of  its  spores.  This  is  Phacid- 
ium  (or  Pseudopeziza)  trifolii,  which  at  times  does  considerable 
damage  in  Europe.  (Consult  Fig.  171.) 

9.  The  violet  root-fungus  (Leptosplmria  circinans,  Fcke.) 
Forming  a  violet  mold  on  the  roots  of  alfalfa,  red  clover,  etc., 
which   soon   rot,  the   parts   above   ground    turning   yellow  and 
dying.       . 

In  Europe,  Lucerne  is  subject  to  a  disease  that  manifests  itself 
by  the  appearance  of  yellow  spots  in  the  fields.  These  spread 
until  the  entire  crop  is  often  affected.  The  trouble  lies  in  a. 
violet-colored  mold  that  develops  on  the  roots  of  the  plants, 
spreading  from  one  to  another  through  the  soil,  and  finally  pro- 
ducing spores  by  which  it  is  apparently  carried  over  the  winter. 
This  disease  has  not  been  recognized  yet  in  the  United  States,, 
but  what  is  held  to  be  a  state  of  the  root  fungus — a  cobwebby,, 
white  mycelium,  known  as  the  snow-mold,  that  covers  the- 
ground,  leaves,  etc. ,  just  as  the  snow  disappears  in  early  spring 
— has  been  noticed  in  great  abundance  at  River  Falls,  Wis.,  by 
my  friend,  Professor  King,  so  that  it  is  not  improbable  that  the 
parasitic  form  will  soon  be  found.  No  remedies  for  it  have  been 
proposed,  except  digging  ditches,  as  deep  as  the  roots  extend, 
about  diseased  parts  of  the  field  when  it  first  appears  to  prevent 
it  from  spreading. 

10.  The  grass-mildew,  (Erysiphe graminis,  D.  C.)     Forming- 
a  pure  white,  cobwebby  or  mealy  coating  on  the  upper  side  of 
the  leaves  of  grasses,  especially  in  the  shade 

The  German  equivalent  (meal-dew)  of  our  common  name  for 
the  group  of  fungi  to  which  this  species  belongs  is  expressive  of 
the  appearance  presented  by  them  in  their  early  stages.  When 
they  cover  the  surface  of  the  plants  they  grow  on  with  a  fine* 


THE  SCLEKOTIUM  DISEASE  OF   CLOVER,  43T 

white  mycelium  that  bears  such  numbers  of  white  spores  as  to 

suggest  a  dusting  of  meal  or  flour. 

This  mildew  is  usually  found  through  the 
entire  open  season  on  grass  growing  in  damp 
and  shaded  positions ;  it  is  especially  abundant 

Ion  June  grass.  Its  cobwebby  mycelium,,  which 
does  not  penetrate  the  leaves,  does  not  at  first 
appear  to  injure  them  but  in  time  they  succumb 
Fio.  172.  and  dry  up.  Through  the  summer  it  spreads 

by  means  of  its  light  conidia,  that  are  easily  blown  about  and 
germinate  quickly  while  fresh,  though  they  are  unable  to  live 
through  the  winter.  On  the  dead  leaves  small,  black  fruit- 
bodies,  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  are  formed,  in  which 
winter-spores  are  produced  in  short-stem  asci.  (Fig.  172  is  the 
illustration  for  the  grass-mildew.) 

Usually  grasses  do  not  suffer  much  from  mildew,  except  in 
damp  and  shaded  places.  Drainage  is  likely  to  prove  beneficial 
where  it  is  troublesome. 

11.  The  sclerotium  disease  of  clover,  (Peziza  dbonoides,  F.) 
On  clover,  causing  a  browning  of  leaves  or  stem,  which  are  soon 
covered  in  spots  by  a  white  mold  that  ultimately  forms  solid,, 
wavy,  black  bodies,  often  £  in.  long,  white  within. 

In  Europe,  clovers  are  occasionally  attacked  by  this  fungus, 
which  is  very  destructive  when  it  occurs.  The  entire  plant 
becomes  filled  with  a*  mycelium  which  soon  kills  it  and  afterward 
breaks  through  in  places,  forming  black  sclerotia  on  the  various, 
parts  of  the  decaying  plants  as  winter  approaches.  These  bodies 
lie  dormant  in  the  soil  until  the  following  summer,  when  they 
produce  fruit-bodies  in  the  form  of  wavy  stems,  bearing  brown 
disks  or  inverted  cones,  ^  to  •£  in.  in  diameter,  on  their  ends. 
When  these  reach  the  surface  they  shed  their  spores  and  so  spread 
the  disease. 

Draining   the   soil    well,    and   especially   replacing    clover   by 


428  THE  SCLEROTIUM  DISEASE  OF  CLOVER. 

wheat,  corn,  or  other  crops  not  attacked  by  the  Peziza,  are 
recommended  where  it  appears.  As  the  potato,  rape,  and  hemp 
sometimes  suffer  from  a  similar  sclerotium  disease,  they  should 
not  be  used  in  rotation  with  each  other  or  with  clover  in  case  of 
its  appearance. 

A  large  number  of  fungi  are  spoken  of  as  imperfect  fungi  from 
the  resemblance  of  their  fruit  to  the  conidia  or  stylospores  of 
Ascomycetes.  Several  of  these  cause  diseases  of  grasses. 

The  brown-spot  disease  of  pigeon- 
grass,  early  spear-grass, and  other  species, 
is  due  to  Septoria  graminum,  (Desm.) 
(Fig.  173),  that  form  a  mycelium  within 
the  plant,  usually  killing  it  in  places 
which  turn  brown  and  are  finally  dotted 
with  the  minute  black  fruit-bodies  of  the 
FIG.  173.  parasite,  within  which  slender  colorless 

spores  are  produced.  In  Europe,  a  similar  disease  is  also  caused 
by  a  related  fungus  (Dilophospora  graminis,  Desm.)  whose  spores 
differ  in  having  brush-like  appendages  at  their  ends.  Both  are 
at  times  destructive,  but  affect  the  cereals  more  than  the  smaller 
grasses.  Mastigosporium  albu?n,  (Riess),  and  Scolecotrichum g,ram- 
inis,  (Fche.),  cause  diseases  of  the  leaves  of  grass  in  Europe;  the 
last  named  appeared  on  orchard  grass  in  great  abundance  about 
Madison,  Wisconsin,  in  1886.  Hadrotrichum phragmitis,  (Fche.), 
forms  small,  dark-brown  pustules  on  leares  of  the  reed,  resem- 
bling those  of  a  rust-fungus,  even  under  a  hand-lens.  The  gray- 
spot  disease  of  crab-grass  is  due  to  Pyricularia  grisea  (Che.), 
another  imperfect  form  that  bears  pear-shaped  conidia  on  threads 
that  protrude  through  the  stomata  of  the  gray  spots. 

Sporobolus  indicus,  a  grass  of  the  Southern  States,  somewhat 
esteemed  for  pasturage  while  young,  is  often  called  "  black-seed 
grass"  or  "smut-grass"  from  the  fact  that  its  flowering  parts 
are  generally  covered  by  the  dark-brown  fruit  of  Helmintho- 


THE  GRASS    PERONOSPORA. 


429 


sporium  ravenelii,  (Curt).,  that  is  often  so  abundant  as  to  form  a 
dense,  spongy  mass.  Wire  grass  is  subject  to  similar  attacks 
from  H.  nodosum,  (B.  &  C).,  and  other  species  of  the  same  genus 
occur  on  different  grasses  in  a  similar  manner. 


FIG.  174. 


PERONOSPOREAE. 


12.   The  grass-peronospora,  (Per- 

onospora  graminicola,  Sacc.)  In  the 
leaves  of  Hungarian  grass  and  pigeon 
grass,  ultimately  filling  them  with  a 
snuff-brown,  powdery  mass. 

Hungarian  grass  (Setaria  italica)  is 
sometimes  attacked  by  a  parasite  clearly 
related  to  the  notorious  potato  blight 
which  forms  a  mycelium  in  the  leaves  of 
the  grass  in  the  cells  of  which  it  lives. 
Branches  of  this  emerge  sparsely  through 
the  stomata  and  bear  colorless  conidia 
which  spread  the  disease.  Later  in  the 
season  these  spores  are  replaced  by 
winter  spores  (oospores)  that  originate 
on  branches  of  the  mycelium  within  the 
leaf  by  a  process  of  fertilization.  These 
spores  are  contained  in  thick- walled, 
brown  envelopes,  and  presumably  infect 
new  plants  in  the  spring.  So  far,  this 
disease  has  not  proved  seriously  destruc- 
tive, though  the  leaves  attacked  are  re- 
duced to  mere  shreds  when  the  winter 
spores  are  ripe.  The  flower-clusters  of 
pigeon  grass  are  greatly  changed  by  the 
fungus,  according  to  Dr.  Halsted. 
Fig.  174.) 


480  CLOVER  PEBONOSPORA.      SEEDLING  ROT. 

13.  The  clover    peronospora,   (Peronospora    trifoliorum, 
DeBary).   A  dirty  white  or  purple-brown  mold,  often  completely 
Governing  the   lower  surface  of   the  leaves  of  clover,    alfalfa, 
none-such,  etc.     (See  Fig.  175.) 

The  life  history  of  this  species  is  quite 
similar  to  that  of  the  last,  though  they  differ 
greatly  in  appearance.  The  leaves  that  it 
occurs  on  are  paler  than  the  others,  and  the 
threads  that  escape  through  their  stomata  and 
bear  conidia  are  so  numerous  and  bushy  as  to 
form  a  dense  coating  on  their  under  side. 
PIG.  175.  Oospores  are  produced  in  smaller  numbers 

than  in  the  last  species,  and,  as  they  are  thin-walled 
and  nearly  colorless,  they  are  only  to  be  found  after  careful 
microscopical  examination.  Another  species  of  the  same  genus 
(P.  vicial,  Berk.)  is  found  on  the  leaves  of  vetches  and  of  the 
pea. 

14.  The  seedling  rot,  (Pythium  debaryanum,  Hesse).     Caus- 
ing young  plants  of  clover,  millet,  corn,  and  many  other  species 
to  rot  close  to  the  ground. 

Several  species  of  Pythium  attack  living  plants.  The  present 
species  is  said  to  be  widely  distributed  in  garden  soil  in  Europe 
and  causes  serious  trouble  by  attacking  seedling  plants.  It  has 
not  been  observed  in  America  as  yet,  but  can  be  recognized,  if 
found,  by  its  effects  on  the  plants,  which  quickly  decay  near  the 
ground.  They  contain  a  delicate,  colorless  mycelium  that  fruits 
on  the  surface  of  the  decaying  parts,  when  these  are  kept  damp, 
producing  conidia,  swarm-spores,  and  oospores. 

Fairy-Ring  Fungi. — Bright  green  circles,  several  feet  in 
diameter,  closely  surrounded  by  a  narrow  strip  of  dead  or  dying 
grass,  are  frequently  seen  in  lawns  or  pastures,  and  are  commonly 
called  " fairy-rings."  They  are  caused  by  several  species  of 


FAIRY-RING  FCJNGI. 


toadstools  (the  commonest  is  Marasmius  oreades)  that  spread  a 
«hort  distance  outward  every  year,  their  mycelium  destroying 
the  grass  in  the  roots  of  which  it  grows,  and  so  causing  the  brown 
ring,  on  which  an  abundant  crop  of  toad-stool  fruits  forms  in 
the  fall,  which  by  their  decay  enrich  the  soil  so  that  it  produces 
a  ranker  vegetation  the  next  season. 

An  appearance  which  may  be  called  false  fairy-rings  is  occa- 
sionally produced  by  Physarum  cinereum,  one  of  the  shine-molds, 
•on  the  leaves  and  stems  of  grasses.  This  fungus  grows  unnoticed 
on  decaying  matter  in  the  ground,  often  creeping  out  in  a  regular 
manner  from  its  starting  point  until  a  more  or  less  perfect  circle 
six  or  seven  feet  in  diameter  is  formed,  when  it  suddenly  appears 
upon  the  plants  it  has  grown  under,  and  produces  its  dusty,  ash- 
colored  fruit  in  such  abundance  as  to  attract  attention  from  a 
'distance.  From  its  mode  of  life,  it  does  little  if  any  harm  to  the 
grass,  further  than  to  make  a  little  of  it  unpalatable  to  animals. 

In  closing  this  chapter,  mention 
should  be  made  of  small,  egg-shaped 
galls  that  occur  on.  the  roots  of 
clover  and  many  other  leguminosae. 
It  has  been  claimed  that  they  result 
from  the  attacks  of  a  little  under- 
stood parasitic  fungus  (Schinzia 
legiiminosarum,  Frank),  or  from 
the  presence  of  one  of  the  bacteria, 
which  is  apparently  the  case;  but 
they  have  been  the  subject  of  much 
controversy.  Whatever  their  true 
nature  may  be,  they  do  not  appear 
to  be  in  the  least  injurious  to  the 
FlG  175  plants,  and  may  be  found  on  nearly 

every  dover  root  examined. 


432  DEBRIS. 


DEBRIS. 


After  the  house  is  finished,  the  debris  often  contains  a  few 
choice  brick  and  some  stone  that  did  not  seem  to  exactly  fit  in 
anywhere.  There  is  a  barrel  or  so  of  good  mortar,  half  a  load  of 
sand,  a  little  nice  lumber,  a  bunch  and  a  half  of  shingles,  and 
one  of  lath.  There  are  remnants  of  nails  and  screws,  paint,  oil, 
putty,  glass,  and  wall-paper.  Some  of  these  are  as  good  as  any 
employed  in  constructing  the  building.  The  most  worthless 
fragments  are  carted  away  and  covered  up  or  burned. 

So  in  writing  a  lecture,  a  story,  or  a  book,  there  will  often  be 
more  or  less  surplus  materials.  A  change  in  the  plan,  perhaps, 
will  make  it  seem  best  to  leave  out  some  things  for  want  of  a 
suitable  place  to  use  them. 

I  once  supposed  the  following  quotations  among  many  other 
things  would  certainly  find  a  place  in  the  former  pages,  either 
as  headings  to  chapter  or  paragraph  or  in  some  other  place. 
A  few  were  thus  used,  but  most  were  left  over.  Here  are  some 
of  the  remnants : 

"Go  to  grass." 

"  All  flesh  is  grass."— Isaiah. 

"  The  staff  of  life." — Said  of  wheat. 

"  Let  the  earth  bring  forth  grass."— Leviticus. 

"  Sweet  fields  arrayed  in  living  green." 

"  Grass  is  rather  a  good  savings  bank."— Joseph  Harris. 

"  Grass  is  the  pivotal  crop  of  American  agriculture." — Geo.  Qeddes. 

"  Grass  is  king  among  the  crops  of  the  earth."— Alex.  Hyde. 

"  The  grasses  are  the  foundation  of  all  agriculture." 

"  He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures."— 23d  Psalm. 

"A  water  meadow  is  the  triumph  of  agricultural  art."— Pusey  in  Jour. 
Roy.  Ag.  Soe.,  1849. 


DEBRIS.  433 

"Farmers  pay  too  little  atttention  to  their  pastures."— AT.  H.  Agrl.  Kept. 
"The  cheapest  manure  a  farmer  can  use  is  clover  seed." — American 
Proverb. 

"No  grass,  no  cattle;  no  cattle,  no  manure;  no  manure,  no  crops." — 
Belgian  Proverb. 

"  Then  learn  to  toil  and  gaily  sing, 
All  flesh  is  grass,  and  grass  is  king." 

—Missouri  Agrl.  Rept. 

"  Thf>  term  jrrass  is  only  another  name  for  beef,  mutton,  bread  and 
clothing." 

"  Feed  your  land  before  it  is  hungry;  rest  it  before  it  is  weary;  weed  it 
before  it  is  foul." — English  Farmer. 

"  One  year's  seeding 

Is  seven  years'  weeding." 

"  He  who  makes  two  blades  of  grass  grow  where  only  one  grew  before, 
is  a  great  public  benefactor."— Dean  Swift,  in  about  1720. 
"  And  the  ripe  harvest  of  new-mown  hay 
Gives  it  a  sweet  and  wholesome  odor." 

—Colley  Gibber. 

"  The  melancholy  days  are  come,  the  saddest  of  the  year, 
Of  wailing  winds,  and  naked  woods,  and  meadows  brown  and  sear." 

— Bryant. 

"  Plants  do  not  grow  where  they  like  best,  but  where  other  plants  will 
let  them."— Dean  Herbert. 

"  How  doth  the  little  busy  bee 

Improve  each  shining  hour, 
By  carrying  pollen  day  by  day 

To  fertilize  each  flower." 

"  And  he  gave  it  for  his  opinion  that  whoever  could  make  two  ears  of 
corn  or  two  blades  of  grass  to  grow  upon  a  spot  of  ground  where  only  one 
grew  before,  would  deserve  better  of  mankind,  and  do  more  essential 
service  to  his  country,  than  the  whole  race  of  politicians  put  together." — 
Gulliver's  Travels. 

"  But  of  all  sorts  of  vegetation,  the  grasses  seem  to  be  most  neglected; 
neither  the  farmer  nor  the  grazier  seem  to  distinguish  the  annual  from 
the  perennial,  the  hardy  from  the  tender,  nor  the  succulent  and  nutritive 
from  the  dry  and  juiceless.  The  study  of  grasses  would  be  of  great  con- 
sequence to  a  northerly  and  grazing  kingdom."—  White's  Nat.  His.  of 
Selbourne. 

55 


434  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


No  attempt  has  been  made  to  render  this  list  of  authors  com- 
plete, yet  it  contains  the  leading  authorities  which  nave  iurmshed 
the  greatest  help  in  preparing  this  volume. 

Agricultural  Gazette  (English),  1880. 

Agricul.  Reports,  U.  S.,  for  1879,  '80,  '81,  '82,  '83,  '84. 

Am.  Agriculturist.     Short  notes,  1870  and  later. 

Am.  Jour.  Sci.     Numerous  short  articles  and  notes. 

The  American  Naturalist,  several  volumes,  Phila. 

Trans.  Lin.  Soc.  The  Morphology  of  the  Flowers  of  Grasses,  by  Oeo. 
Bentham.  Hand-book  of  the  British  Flora. 

Bentham  and  Hooker.     Genera  Plantarum,  vol,  3,  Berlin. 

Dr.  C.  E.  Bessey.    Botany  for  schools  and  colleges,  N.  Y. 

Botanical  Gazette,  Ind.     Numerous  notes. 

Robert  Brown's  Miscellaneous  Botanical  Works,  2  vols.  Ray.  Soc., 
London. 

Robert  Brown.     Compt.  Manual  of  Botany.     Edin.  and  Ix>ndon. 

Prof.  James  Buckman.     Prize  Essay.    Jour.  Roy.  Agrl.  Soc.,  1854. 

Bulletin  of  the  Torrey  Bot.  Club,  N.  Y. 

William  Carruthers,  Consulting  Botanist,  Jour.  Roy.  Agrl.  Soc.  Hig 
annual  reports  for  some  years. 

Carter  on  Laying  Down  Land  to  Grass.     A  pamphlet.     Eng. 

A.  W.  Cheever,  in  N.  H.  Agrl.  Report,  1875. 

The  Clover  Leaf,  1880,  '81,  '82,  '83,  '84.  Birdsell  Mnfg.  Co.,  South  Bend, 
Ind. 

Rept.  Conn.  Board  of  Agrl.,  1868  and  later.     Numerous  valuable  notes. 

The  Country  Gentleman.     Many  good  articles,  from  1870  to  1886. 

C.  Darwin.  Cross  and  Self-fertilization  of  Plants,  and  Power  of  Move- 
ments in  Plants. 

P.  Duchartre.    Elements  de  Botanique.     Paris. 

M.  J.  Duval-Jouve.  Histotaxie  des  Feuilles  des  Graminees,  in  Annales 
des  Sciences  Naturelles.  Paris. 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica.    Article  on  Grasses,  by  H.  T. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  435 

Morgan  Evans.     Jour.  Roy.  Agrl.  Soc.,  1876. 

Prof.  C.  H.  Fernald.    The  Grasses  of  Maine. 

C.  L.  Flint.     Grasses  and  Forage  Plants.     Boston. 

The  Garden.  Vols.  4  and  8,  Ornamental  Grasses;  vol.  8,  Wild  Grasses 
for  Bouquets.  London. 

Gardener's  Chronicle.  Fertilization  of  the  Flowers.  March,  1874,  Feb., 
1875. 

Botanical  Text-Book.     A.  Gray  and  G.  L.  Goodale. 

Manual  of  Botany.     A.  Gray. 

Win.  Gorrie.     Articles  in  Morton's  Cyclo.  of  Agrl. 

Prof.  J.  Stanton  Gould.  Grasses  and  their  Culture.  N.  Y.  Agrl.  Rept., 
1869. 

Prof.  J.  S.  Gould.     Lecture  on  Grasses.     Maine  Agrl.  Rept.,  1872. 

E.  Hackel.    Monographia  Festucarum  Europsearum. 

Joseph  Harris.    Value  of  an  Analysis  of  Grasses.    N.  Y.  Agrl.  Rept.,  1865. 

J.  Henderson.     Hand-book  of  the  Grasses.     New  York. 

A.  Henfrey.     An  Element.  Course  of  Bot.     London. 

J.  D.  Hooker.    The  Student's  Flora  of  the  British  Islands. 

Rev.  C.  W.  Howard,  of  S.  C.  A  Manual  of  the  Cultivation  of  the 
Grasses  and  Forage  Plants. 

James  Hunter,  a  pamphlet,  Eng.     Permanent  Pasture  Grasses. 

Alex.  Hyde.  Twelve  lectures  on  agriculture  before  the  Lowell  Institute, 
Boston. 

Indiana  Farmer. 

Jour.  Roy.  Agrl.  Soc.  of  Eng.  Many  valuable  papers  in  many  volumes, 
notably  for  1854,  '56,  '58,  '59,  '60,  '61,  '66,  '69,  '72,  '74,  '75.  '76,  '77,  '82. 

J.  B.  Killebrew.    The  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  of  Tenn. 

I.  A.  Lapham  in  Wis.  Agrl.  Rept.,  p.  409,  1853. 

Lawes  and  Gilbert.     Philosoph.  Transactions.    London. 

Lawes  and  Gilbert.  Treatment  of  Pastures.  Jour.  Roy.  Agrl.  Soc., 
1858,  1859. 

Dr.  J.  Lindley.    The  Vegetable  Kingdom. 

J.  Lindley.     Many  articles  in  Norton's  Cyclopedia  of  AgricuL 

The  Treasury  of  Botany.     Lindley  and  Moore. 

E.  J.  Lowe.     British  Grasses. 

Maine  Agrl.  Rept.     Discussions  and  notes,  1870,  '71,  '72,  '76,  '81. 

Maout  and  Decaisne.    Translated  by  Hooker.    Descrip.  and  Analyt.  Bot. 

Dr.  Maxwell  T.  Masters.     Plant  Life  on  the  Farm.     London. 

Dr.  L.  D.  Morse,  in  Missouri  Agrl.  Rept.,  p.  311,  1868. 


436  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Michigan  Board  of  Agriculture,  1871,  '75,  '77,  '78,  '80,  '81,  '82,  '85.  Re- 
ports and  lectures  by  W.  J.  Beal. 

Crops  of  the  Farm,  by  J.  C.  Morton  and  others,  London. 

The  Fertilization  of  Flowers,  Prof.  Hermann  Miiller. 

Nat.  Live  Stock  Jour.,  1872,  '73,  '81. 

N.  H.  Agrl.     Value  of  Quack  Grass,     p.  142,  1853. 

Prof.  J.  R.  Page,  University  of  Virginia.     Report  for  1879-80. 

Penn.  Agrl.  Rept.,  1881. 

Dr.  D.  L.  Phares,  of  Miss.  The  Farmer's  Book  of  Grasses  and  other 
Forage  Plants. 

M.  Plues.     British  Grasses. 

The  Prairie  Farmer,  1869  and  later. 

Prantl  and  Vines.     Text-book  of  Botany.     Phila. 

The  Press,  Phila.  Pa.,  1884  and  later. 

Proceedings  of  the  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  Articles 
by  W.  J.  Beal. 

Proceedings  of  the  Soc.  for  the  Promotion  of  Agrl.  Sci.,  vols.  1,  2,  3. 
Contributions  by  W.  J.  Beal. 

The  Rural  New  Yorker,  34  Park  Row,  New  York.  Many  articles  by 
able  writers,  especially  for  July,  1885. 

A  Text-book  of  Botany.    J.  Sachs. 

James  Sanderson.  Grass  with  or  without  a  Crop.  Trans,  of  Highland 
Soc.,  1863. 

Prof.  N.  S.  Shaler.    Science,  p.  186.    March,  1883. 

G.  Sinclair's  Hortus  Gramineus  Moburnensis,  1826,  London. 

Sowerby  and  Johnson.     The  Grasses  of  Great  Britain. 

Prof.  L.  Stockbridge.  Management  of  Pastures.  Maine  Agrl.  Rept., 
1876,  '81. 

Sutton  &  Sons,  Eng.     Permanent  Pastures.    A  pamphlet. 

J.  J.  Thomas.    Prize  Essay.    N.  Y.  Agrl.  Rept.,  1843. 

Dr.  Geo.  Thurber.     Geolog.  Sur.  Cal.  Botany,  vol.  2. 

The  Tribune,  N.  Y.,  1870  and  later. 

C.  B.  Trinius.     Species  Graminum,  3  vols. 

Dr.  A.  Vcelcker.    Jour.  Roy.  Agrl.  Soc.,  1866,  1874. 

R.  Warington.    The  Chemistry  of  the  Farm.     London. 

Webb  &  Sons,  Eng.    Permanent  Pastures.    A  pamphlet. 

J.  C.  Wheeler  &  Sons,  Eng.    Book  on  Grasses.     A  pamphlet. 

Botanist  and  Florist.     A.  Wood. 


IN  DKX. 


PAGE 

Abortion,  caused  by  ergot 420 

Acuminate,    ending  in    a  long 

tapering  point. 

Acute,  terminating  in  an  acute 
angle. 

Adnate,  growing  fast  to 64,  65 

Adulterating  seeds 206 

Affinity  of  plants 60,  61 

Africa,  Southern,  effect  of  over 

feeding. 78,79 

African  millet..., 187 

Agrarian  grasses. 75 

Agropyrum  repens 92,  167,  169 

Glumes  of 34 

Leaf  of 29,31 

Agrostis 70,  143,  145,  183,  403 

Analysis  of 55 

Alba _. 148 

Canina 151 

Ergot  on. 420 

For  lawn 315 

Stolonifera 148 

Vulgaris  var  alba 145 

Agrotians 403 

Aira,  awn  of  twists 46 

Flexuosa __. 191 

Leaf  of 23 

Albuminoids 51,  53  to  59 

Alcott,  J.  B.  on  Brown  bent 151 

Alfalfa,  see  Medicago  sativa. 

Alfilaria 216 

Allen,  L.  F.,  on  orchard  grass..  113 
Alopecurus agrestis,  seeds  of...  153 

Alopecurus  pratensis 88,  151,  152 

Analysis  of 57 

Leafof 24 

Pistil  of 37 

Proterandrous ...    38 

Alsike  clover...  ..  347 


PAGE 

Alternate,  said  of  leaves  or  flow- 
ers where  there  is  only  one 

at  each  node  or  joint 64 

Alvord,    General,     on     Rocky 

Mountain  pastures 82 

Alvord,  Maj.  H.  E.,  on  Hungar- 
ian grass 177 

On  orchard  grass 114 

On  sowing  grass  seed  with- 
out a  crop 252 

On  Timothy 106 

Ammonia  in  clover 33 1,  333 

And  minerals 277 

Amphicarpum,  flowers  of 38 

Hairs  on 17,  18 

Seedsof.. 47 

Analysis  of  grasses,  52,  53,  54, 

56,  57,  58,  59. 

Anatropous 64 

Andropogon,    comes   in  where 

others  fail ..79,80,  81 

Leaf  of 13,19,21,27 

On  Pacific  slope 83,  84 

Anemophilous 38 

Animals  cover  seeds 47 

Annuals,  plants  starting  from 
seed  maturing  seed  and  dy- 
ing in  one  year. 

Annular  vessels 25,  26 

Anther 64 

Anthistiria,  twisting  of  awn 46 

Anthoxanthumodoratum.-153,  155 

Analysisof 58 

Glumes  of 35 

Var.  Puellii 157 

Appressed,    lying  flat  or    close 

against. 
Aquatic  grasses 74 

Arabian  millet^ 171 

(437) 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Aristida  in  Mexico 97 

Arizona,  grazing  of 82,  83,  85,  93 

Armsby,  Dr.  H.  P.,  on  Hungar- 
ian grass .- 176 

On  lucerne 355 

On  lupines 360 

On  making  hay 287 

On  time  to  cut  clover 338 

Army  worm ___  405 

Arrhenatherum  avenaceum3..7, 

38,  121 

Analysis  of 58 

Arundo  donax,  leaf  of 12 

Ash,  composition  of -.51,  52,  53, 

54,  55,  56,  57,  58,  59 

Asopias  costalis.. 393 

Asparagus,  bends  up 44 

Atmosphere,  a  source  of  plant 

food. 332 

Aughey,  Dr.  S.,  changes  in  the 

flora  of  Nebraska 79 

Avena,  awn  twists 46 

Avena  elatior,  see  Arrhena- 
therum    121 

Avena  flavescens... 191 

Avena,  leaf  of 30 

Awn,  a  bristle  shaped  append- 
age  36 

Awn,  annoying  sheep 47 

Twisting 46,  47 

Axil,  the  upper  angle  formed  by 
a  leaf  or  branch  to  its  sup- 
port. 

Bacteria  in  fermenting  hay 299 

On  roots  of  clovers 431 

Bailey,     Prof.    L.   H.    Jr.,    on 

sedges  for  hay 303 

Banner,  the  largest  and  upper 

petal  of  a  flower  like  the  pea. 

clover,  etc. 
Barley.. 65,66 

Flowers  of 38,  39,  40, 41,  42 

For  hay 86 

Barnyard   grass,    see  Panicum 

Crus-galli. 


PAOB 

Bast,  see  hypodermal  fibers. 
Batchelor,  Daniel,  sowing  grass 

seed  without  a  crop. 252 

How  much  seed  to  sow 244 

Battle  in  the  meadow 273 

Beans,  value  as  a  manure 331 

Bees,  on  clover  blossoms 325,  342 

On  flowers  of  Festuca 38 

Beetle,  clover-leaf. 380 

Bengal  grass 175 

Bent  grass  for  lawn 315 

Bentham,    G.,     on    flowers    of 

grasses 33 

Berckmans,  P.  J.,  on  cow-pea ..  364 
Bermuda  grass,  see  Cynodon. 
Bessey,  Dr.  C.  E. ,  change  in  flora 

of  Nebraska. -79,  80 

A.  model  grass 299 

Dactylis  glomerata 117 

Muhlenbergia 182,  188 

Need  of  new  grasses 303 

Phleum  pratense 105 

Poa  pratensis 137 

Bibliography 434 

Biennial,  requiring  two  years  to 
mature. 

Bitter  dock 223 

Black  army  worm 899 

Black  gramma 96 

Black  spot  disease  on  grass  and 

clover 424 

Blade,  see  leaf. 

Blissus  lencopterus 408 

Blount,  Prof.  A.  E.,  crossing  of 

flowers 307 

Lucerne  in  Colorado 356 

Blue  grass,  see  Poa  pratensis. 


Blue   joint,    see  Deyeuxia  and 

many  others 81,  94,  179 

Blue  stem 80,81,94 

Bokara  clover 358 

Bone  dust  as  a  fertilizer 269,  270 

Bonham,Hon.  L.  N.,  on  Dactylis 

glomerata 118 

Making  clover  hay 295 


INDEX. 


439 


PAGE 

Bonnet  grass 148 

Borage 368 

Borer,  clover-root . . 375 

Clover-stem 378 

Botanist,  consulting 211 

Bouteloua,  leaf  of 28 

Box  for  collecting 71 

Bract,  a  small  or  rudimentary 

leaf 33 

Brain  of  an  animal 45 

Bran,  value  as  a  manure 331 

Bronius,  analysis  of 58 

Leaf  of 10,  29 

Pistil  of 37 

Broom  sedge,  see  Andropogon.80,  88 
Brown-bent,  see  Agrostis  canina  151 
Brown  spot  fungus  c-n  grasses ..  428 
Brown,  Prof.  W.  F.,  How  much 

seed  to  sow. 243 

Hungarian  grass 177 

Phleum  pratense 106 

Buchloe-.- ..38,  79,  80 

Buckley,  Prof.  S.  B..  on  Texas 

millet 187 

Buckman,  Prof.  J. ,  Arrhenathe- 

rum 122 

Classification 73,  74 

Cynosurus  cristatis 195 

Irrigation  of  meadows 284 

Variation  of  clover. 340 

Bud,  a  young  branch,  or  one  or 

more  young  flowers. 6,  42 

Buffalo  grass,  see  Buchloe. 

Bugloss 221 

Bugs,  to  keep  out  of  cow-peas ..  366 
Bulb,  a  leaf  bud  with  fleshy 

scales 76 

Bulblets  of  onions 37 

Bulliform  cells,    14,   16,  17,  18, 

19,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25,  27 
Bumble    bees,    on     flowers    of 

clover 325,326 

Bunch  grasses 81,  94 

Bundle  sheath 25 

Burden's  grass! 145,  151 

Burdock...  --  220 


PAGE 

Bur  clover. 357 

Bush  pea 364 

Butter  and  eggs,  a  weed 221 

Butterfly,  yellow 388 

Cadle,  C.,  manuring  grass  lands  270 
Calamagrostis,  see  Deyeuxia. 
California  clover 357 

Grazing 82,  83,  84 

Caloptenus 409 

Calyx,  the  flower  cup,  the  outer 

part  of  the  perianth. 
Cameron,  R.  A.,  native  pastures 

of  Colorado 80 

Campanulate,  bell  shaped 363 

Canada  thistle 219 

Capitate,  head-shaped,  collected 

in  ahead... 64 

Carbon 49,  51,  52 

Care  of  meadows 266 

Care  of  pastures. 261 

Carina,  a  keel,  as  the  sharp  ridge 

on  the  back  of  a  glume. 

Carman,  E.  S.s  on  lawns 317 

Carpel,    a  simple  pistil,  or  an 

element  of  a  compound  pistil. 

Cartilaginous 64 

Caruthers,  W.,  on  testing  seeds 

in  England 212 

Caryopsis 41,43 

A  grain,  the  seed-like  fruit 

of  a  grass 64,  65 

Cathestechum ,  leaf  of 22 

Cat's-tail,  meadow 103 

Cat-tail  grass  fungus 423 

Cecidomyia  trifolii 383,  389 

Celery,  bends  up 44 

Cell,  the  anatomical  element  of 

plants , 

Cells,  star  shaped 13,  28 

Cellulose ,  composition  of 51 

Cereal,  applied  to  grasses  culti- 
vated for  their  grain.. .65,  66,  67 

Cereals,  clover  for 332 

Chamagrostis    minima,  leaf  of 

- 16,  23,  27 


440 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Chamberlain,    Hon.   W.   I.,  on 

permanent  grass 257 

Changing  grass  land    by    new 

seeds 255 

Cheat 223 

Cheever,    A.    W.,   on    Dactylis 

glomerata.- Ill 

How  much  seed  to  sow 244 

Seeding  without  a  crop 250 

Chemistry  of  clover 329 

Chenopodiaceae 63 

Chess,  Bromus 223 

Chick-weed 215 

Chicory,  a  weed 220 

Chinch-bug. 408 

Chinese  pea 364 

Chloris,  leaf  of _     19 

Chlorophyll,the  substance  which 

colors  plants  green 1,28 

Uses  of 49,  50 

Ciliate,  fringed  on  the  margin 

with  hairs .77 

Circumnutation,  bowing  around 

in  every  direction. 44 

Classifying  plants 60,  61 

Claviceps 420 

Claw,    the    narrow   base    of    a 

petal  or  sepal. 
Cleistogamic,  close-fertilized  in 

unopened  flowers 38 

Closing  of  a  leaf 23,  25 

Clover,  see  also  Trifolium...  117,  321 

As  a  manure .280,  329,  332 

Care  of  young 337 

Climate  good  for. 334 

Drasteria 387 

Fails  to  catch 337 

For  the  north 232 

For  the  south 334 

For  swine 335 

Galls  on  roots 481 

Hay  insects 395 

Insects  injuring. 371 

In  Georgia 334 

In  Kansas 334 

In  T,Icxico...  .     97 


PAGE 

Clover,  in  Mississippi 334 

Leaf  beetle 343,  380 

Leaf  midge 383 

Leaf  oscinus 385 

Peronospora  on 430 

Phyllachora  on 424 

Red ..  323 

Rich  in  nitrogen _  _  291 

Root  borer 344,  375 

Rust 418 

Sclerotiuni  on  _  _ 427 

Seed,  amount  to  sow 336 

Seed  caterpillar 392 

Seed,  dark  or  light  - 340 

Seed  in  England 229 

Seed,  insects  attack 389 

Seed  midge 343,389 

Seed  to  the  ounce 337 

Seed  saving 339 

Seed  sowing • .336,  338 

Selection  of  sorts 223 

Sickness 343 

Soil  for 334 

Stem  borer 378 

The  model  plant 342 

Time  to  cut 338 

To  kill  weeds 335 

Variation  of 340 

Winter  killing 338 

Cocking  hay , 294 

Cock's-foot,  see  Dactylis. 
Cohesion,  the  uniting  of  similar 
parts  of  a  flower. 

Cole,  T.  A.,  on  orchard  grass 113 

Colias philodice 388 

Collecting  grasses 70,  71,  72 

Collier,  Peter,  on  grasses 59 

Colorado,  native  pastures 80,  82 

Columella,  on  meadows 197 

Combustible  matter  in  grasses . .     52 

Comfrey,  prickly :..  368 

Composites. 61,  62,  67,  320 

Composition  of  grass..51,  52,  53, 

54,  55,  56,  57,  58,  59 
Comstock,  Prof.  J.  H.,  on  clover 
stem  borer...  ..  378 


INDEX. 


441 


PAGE 

Conduplicate,    closing  like  the 

two  halves  of  a  book .23,  27 

Cone-flower 219 

Consulting  botanist 211 

Convolute,  rolled  up  from  one 

side  longitudinally . 9 

Convolvulacese 63 

Cook,  Prof.  A.  J  ,  on  insects....  370 
Corn. 76 

See  Indian  corn. 

Smut 414 

Corolla,   the  interior   perianth. 

The  petals  of  a  flower. 

Cotton  cake  as  a  fertilizer 272 

Cotton  grass 65 

Cotton   seed  meal,   value  as  a 

manure 331 

Cotyledon,  a  seed  leaf .42,  65 

Couch  grass,  see  Agropyrum, 

Courtoisia 35 

Cow-pea. 353,  366 

Crambus 400 

Crambus  vulgivagellus 410 

Creeping  bent,  see  Agrostis..  145,  148 
Creeping,      running    along    or 

under  ground  and  rooting. 

Creeping  soft  grass,  Holcus 194 

Creeping  wheat,  see  Agropyrum 

repens. 
Crested  dog's-tail,  see  Cynosurus. 

Cross-fertilization 38,  306 

Crossing  with  foreign  stock 307 

Crow-foot,  a  weed 215 

Crozier,  Wm.,  on  orchard  grass  111 

Crucif erse,  plants  of. 61 

Cryptostachys,  flowers 38 

Cuba  grass 171 

Cucurbitaceae 62 

Culm,  a  stem  of  grass 44 

Cultivating   grasses,    early   at- 
tempts   197 

Curing  hay.. 80,  82 

Byhotair  fan. 297 

Curtis,  T.  D..  on  orchard  grass.  Ill 

Cutting  time  for  clover 338 

Cut  worms. 403 

56 


Cylindrical,  long  and  with  cross 
sections  in  the  form  of  a 
circle. 

Cynodon  Dactylon,__9,  161,  163,  368 
Leafof 18 

Cynosurus  cristatus 195 

Seeds  of  adulterated 207 

Cyperaceae 34,  35,  65 

Leaves  of _. 25 

Value  of 303 

Dactylis  glomerata 109 

Composition  of 54,  56 

Leafof 19,23 

Dakota,      effects     of     feeding 


Grazingin 82 

Dandelion 220 

Danthonia,  awn  twists 46 

Darkness,  effect  of 49 

Darnel,  see  Lolium. 

Darwin,   C.,  on  cross-fertiliza- 
tion   307 

Value  of  bumble-bees  on  red 
clover 327 

Darwin,  Francis,  seeds  burying 
in  the  soil 46,  47 

Debris 432 

Deciduous,  falling  after  a  little 
time. 

Decumbent,  reclining  but  with 
the  apex  ascending. 

Deer  parks,  native 85 

Dehiscent,  opening  regularly. 

De  Laune,  C.  F.  D.,  on  Alope- 

curus  pratensis ,.  153 

On  buying  grass  seeds 212 

On  Dactylis  glomerata 110 

On  ignorance  of  grasses 199 

On  how  to  select  grass  seed.  129 

On  list  of  grasses  to  sow 229 

On  pasture  yields  more  than 

meadows 260 

OnPhleum  pratense 105 

Deschampsia,  awn  of  twists 46 

Leafof...  .    26 


442 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Dentate,  toothed. 

Deyeuxia  Canadensis. 179 

Diadelphous,  filaments  combin- 
ing in  two  sets. 

Digitately,  palmately,  fingered. 

Dioecious,    unisexual,   the    two 

sexes     borne     on    different 

plants 38 

Distichlis,  in  Pacific  slope 83 

Distichous,  placed  in  two  verti- 
cal rows 36,  64 

Distribution  of  seeds 100,  101 

Dock,  narrow,  Rumex 223 

Dodder 221 

Dodge,    J.    R.,    most    valuable 

wild  grasses 81 

Need  of  new  grasses 301 

Dog-grass „  167 

Dolichos 364 

Dorsal,  on  the  back  of 36 

Downing,  A.  J. ,  on  lawns 309 

Drainage,  advantages  of 240 

Improves      the     quality    of 

grasses 281 

Drasteria  erechtea 387 

Drupes 62 

Drying  grass,  effect  of 228 

Paper. 11 

Duke  of  Bedford 199 

Duval-Jouve,     on     tortion    of 

leaves 30 

Dying  seeds 206 

Dysart,  Hon.  S.,  on  saving  seed 
of  Timothy 106 

Early  cultivation  of  grasses 197 

Eel-grass 65 

Egyptian  millet  or  grass 171 

Elaters 406 

Elements  most  useful  to  plants.  329 
Elliott,  Jared,  early  cultivation 
of       Timothy      and      Fowl 

Meadow  grass 199 

Elliptical,  oval  or  oblong  with 

regularly  rounded  ends. 
Elymus  villosus 200 


PAGE 

Embryo,   a  rudimentary   plant 

in  the  seed 65 

Of  Indian  corn 42 

Emerson,  R.  W. ,  on  weeds 214 

Endogenous,  plants  in  which  the 
fibro- vascular  bundles  of  the 
stem  are  scattered  without 

order 64 

Endorhizal 65 

Endosperm,  food  stored  in  the 
seed  outside  the  embryo. 41,  42,  65 

England,  grasses  sown  in 201 

Epicampes,  leaf  of 22 

Epichtoe '..  423 

Epidermis 14,  15,  28,  31 

Affected  by  climate 15 

Of  poa  pratensis 15 

Eragrostis,  fertilized 39 

Ergot 420 

In  agrostis 213 

Ericaceae 62 

Erodium 216 

Erysiphe  on  grasses 426 

Euphorbia. 223 

Evaporation. 27 

Evergreen  grass,see  Arrhenathe- 

rum. 
Experiments  of  J.  B.  Lawes  on 

grass  lands !  273 

Experiments,  on  seeds. 208,  210 

Fairy-ring  fungi 430 

Falcate 363 

False  red-top.  140 

Families  of  most  worth.  .60,  61, 

62,  63.  64 

Farmyard  manure  on  grass 
lands 267,  269,  270 

Fermentation  of  hay 298 

Fertilization  of  the  flowers  of 

clovers 324 

Of  grasses 37,  38,  39,  40,  41 

Fertilizers,  effect  of.... 271,  275,  288 

Festuca. 

Arundinacea 131 

Bees  on  flowers...  .    38 


INDEX. 


443 


PAGE 

Festuca. 

Duriuscula  _ . . 132 

Elatior 126 

Gigantea,  leaf  of 20,  31 

Ovina 132 

Ovina,  epidermis  of 15,  25,  27 

Pratensis 127,  200 

Reticulated  cells  in 25 

Ruston 419 

Stem  of 8 

Fiber,  amount  of  varieties.. 53, 

54  to  59 
Fibro-vascular   bundle.  .7,  8,  13, 

14,  25,  26,  28,  31 

Filament,  stalk  of  the  stamen. .     39 
Filiform,  thread-shaped. 

Fine  top,  Agrostis 151 

Fistular,    hollow    through    the 
whole  length.  ^ 

Flat-stemmed  Poa 137 

Flax  family 63 

Flea  bane,  Erigeron 218 

Flexuous,    bent  alternately    in 
opposite  directions. 

Floral  glume 33,  34,  35 

FloretofPoa 33 

Flower 33,  34,  35 

Flowers,  fertilization  of...         .     37 


Of  Phleum  pratense 77 

Of  red  clover 324 

Foliolate,  having  leaflets. 

Food  of  animals  loses  what 281 

Food  of  plants.. 48,  49,  50,  51,  52,  55 

Foods,  relative  value  of  for 331 

Fowl  meadow  grass,  see  Poa  ser- 

otina. 

Foxtail,  see  Alopecurus. 
Free,  not  adnate  to  other  or- 
gans  .- 65 

Fruitfamily 62 

Fundamental  tissue 25 

Fungi  of  forage  plants 413 

Galls  on  roots  of  clover,  etc 431 

Gardner's  monthly  on  lawns...  317 


Geddes,  Hon.  Geo.,  on  orchard 


113 

On  permanent  grass 256 

On  use  of  plaster 330 

Genus,  aname 69 

Geranium,  bends 44 

German  millet 175 

Germination 48-9 

Of  Indian  corn 42 

More  than  once 210 

Ginger  worts..  _ 63 

Glabrous,  smooth,  not  hairy. 

Gladiolus,  leaf  of 29 

Gland,    a    part    which  secretes 

something. 

Glands  on  Sporobolus,  Tragus..      8 
Glidden,   A.  C.,  on  mammoth 

clover 346 

On  manuring  grasses.. 270 

Globose,  approaching  a  sphere 
in  shape. 

Glume 33,  34,35,  36 

Glumella. 33 

Glumen  fertile 33 

Glyceria,  pistil  of _.• 37 

Smutof... 415 

Gaetz,  M.,  on  selecting  grasses. .  229 

Golden  millet 175 

Golden  oat-grass 191 

Goosefoots. 63 

Gophers  in  grass  land 369 

Gorrie,  Wm.,  on  red-top 148 

On  tall  fescue 127 

On  tall  oat-grass. 121 

Gorze 360 

Gould,  Prof.  J.  S.,  on  blue  joint  181 
On     earlv      cultivation     of 


On  irrigation... 283 

On  Poa   compressa 139 

On  quack  grass 168 

Progress  is  slow 199 

Quoted 205 

Red-top.. 145 

Sweet  vernal  grass 156 

Gourd  family 62 


444 


INDEX. 


Grain ...41,43 

Gramineee,  family 63,64,65, 

66,  67,  68 

Grape  family 61 

Grapholitha - - 392 

Grass,  changing  by  new  seeds.-  255 

Composition  of 52,  53,  54, 

55,  56,  57,  58,  59 

Climate  best  for -. . .  300 

Cultivated  first 160,  197 

(Jure  best  in  dry  countries-80,  82 

Defined 65 

'  Distributed  where. 67,  68 

For  cultivation 101,  233 

For  Kansas 234 

For  lawns. 309,  311 

For  marshes 233 

For  meadows  and  pastures .. 

101,  226,  233 
For  ornament  collecting. 317,  319 

For  poor  soil 268 

For  preventing  washing,  see 
June  grass,  red-top,  quack 
grass,  Bermuda  grass,  Les- 
pedeza. 

For  the  garden 318 

For  the  north 232 

Grow  best  when. 265 

Grow  where 67,  68 

Improving  by  selection 305 

Individuals  of 67,  68 

In  Great  Britain,  what  have 

been  sown 201 

In  Northern  Mexico 94  to  99 

Insects  injurious  to 395 

In  the  Great  Basin  of  U.  S. . .    94 

Is  king 64,  65,  66,  67,  68 

Killebre w  on  value  of 236 

Land,  Howard  on  value  of.  235 

Little  known 205 

Manures  for 267 

Mildew -  426 

Mixed  for  lawns 311 

Most  valuable  wild 81 ,  99 

New  ones  needed 301 

Of  Montana. . .  . .  -87  to  94 


PAdE 

Grass  of  Nebraska  changed  by 

feeding 79,80 

Of  the  Pacific  slope.. 82,  84  to  87 

On  a  foot  square 241 

Permanent  or  in  rotation 256 

Plats  of 70,  71 

Preserving.. 70,  71,  72,  319 

Rust. 416 

Seeding  with  grain 247 

Seeding  without  grain 250 

The  model. 299 

When  to  cut 59,  288,  289,  293 

Grasses,  as  weeds 224 

Beauty  of. 68 

Best  in  dry  weather _    60 

Best  on  rich  land 60 

Classified  in  a  popular  way  .73,  74 

For  the  south 234,  237,  239 

How  to  study 75,  76,  77 

In  certain  places.. .73,  74 

In  Texas,  natives. 81,82 

In  the  United  States,  former- 
ly sown.. 204 

Proportion  of 67,68 

Requisites  for  success 299 

Size  of 68 

Selection  for  one  year.. .226,  227 

Soil  and  climate  best  for 300 

Three  years... 268 

Time  of  bloom 69 

Tune  to  cut, 59,  288, 289,  293 

Two  years 101,  233 

Uses  of 75 

Weeds  among 75,  214 

What  are  now  sown 229 

When  grow  best 265 

Wild,  most  valuable 81,  99 

Grasshoppers 409 

Grazing,  native  lands 78  to  99 

In  whiter 82 

Great  basin,  grasses  in 93,  94 

Great  Britain,  first  meadows ....  198 

Grasses  sown  in, 201  to  203 

Green  grass 132 

Green- valley  grass 171 

Green  manuring 279 


INDEX. 


445 


PAGE 

Growing,  when  grasses  do  best.  265 
Growth  of  plants.. 48,  49,  50,  51,  52 

Guano,  use  of 270 

Guinea  grass 172 

Gulley,  Prof.  F.  A.,  on  Bermuda 

grass 165 

On  cow  peas 366 

On  Japan  clover 368 

On  Johnson  grass 172 

On  lucerne... 357 

Gypsum,  effect  of 277 

Use  of ,270,  271 

Value  of 330,  337 

Hackel,  E.,  on  leaf 30 

Hallett,    Major,  on    improving 

grasses ..  305 

Hard  fescue.. 132 

Harris,    Joseph,    on    manuring 

grass  lands 270 

Value  of  clover 33 

Harris,  S.  D.,  on  list  of  grasses.  204 
Head,  an  inflorescence  in  which 
the   flowers    are    sessile,    or 
nearly  so    on    a  very  short 

axis ...     36 

Heath  family 62 

Herbarium 70,  71,  72,  73 

Herbert,  Dean,  quoted 273 

Herd's  grass,  Phleum  - 103,  145 

Hay  caps 296 

Hay,  curing  by  hot  air  or  a  fan.  297 

Fermentation  of 298 

Food  value  of 291 

In  Mexico 85,  95,  96,  97 

Making  clover  in  one  day.-  -  295 

Making ....286,289 

Tons  of 66 

Value  as  a  manure 331 

Hermaphrodite,  of  both  sexes. 

Heteropogon,  awn  of  twists 46 

Hierochloa,  flowers  of 38 

Leaf  of 24 

Hilaria  in  Mexico 96 

Hispid,  beset  with  bristly  hairs. 
History  of  red  clover. 323 


PAGE 
Hogweed 220 

Holcus,  analysis 58 

Lanatus 153,  193,  213 

Mollis. 194 

Holmes,  Dr.  O.  W.,  on  the  use 

of  elder 231 

Hop  vines,  twining 44 

Hordeineae 78 

Hordeum,  see  barley. 

Horse-millet •_ 187 

Hounds-tongue. 221 

Hoven. 344 

Howard,   Rev.   C.  W.,  on  Ber- 
muda grass 164 

Clover  in  Georgia 334 

Lucerne  in  Georgia 357 

Orchard  grass.-- lift 

Red-top 147 

Seeding  without  a  crop 251 

Selecting    grasses    for     the 

south .235,  23£ 

Tall  oat-grass 123 

Time  of  sowing  seed 24ft 

Hoysradt,  L.  H.,  on  collecting-    71 

Hungarian  grass 175 

Funguson.- 42& 

Hunter,  James,  on  adulterating 

seeds 20T 

On  seeds  of  tall  fescue 129- 

Hyaline,  transparent  or  translu- 
cent. 

Hyde,  A.,  onorchara  grass 11 0 

Hydrogen 51,  52^ 

Hygroscopic  cells,  see  bulliform 
cells. 

Hylastes   trifolii 375 

Hypodermal  fibers.14, 16,  26,  27, 

28,  31 
Hypolytrum,  scale  of 35 

Imbricate,  overlapping  so  as  to 
"break  joints." 

Improving  by  crossing  the  flow- 
ers  306,  307 

By  selection 305 

Idaho,  grazing  in 82 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Indian  corn 65,  66 

Fertilization  of  flowers.   ...     39 

Fibro- vascular  bundles  of 7 

Germination  of  seed 48 

Leaf  of 13,18,19,30 

Monoecious.. 38 

Proliferous 37 

Seed  of 42 

Indian  meal,  value  as  a  ma- 
nure   331 

In  aequilateral,  unequal  sides. 

Indehiscent,  not  opening  by 
valves  or  chinks,  as  in  regu- 
lar lines. 

Inflorescence- 64 

Ingersoll,  Prest.  C.  L.,  on  lu- 
cerne in  Colorado 356 

Inoculation,  seeding  by 247 

Insects  attacking  clover  hay 393 

Attacking  clover  seed 389 

Carrying  ergot 420 

Caught  by  Sporobolus 8 

Injurious - 370 

Injurious  to  grasses 395 

Internade,  the  part  of  a  stem 
between  two  nodes  or  joints. 

5,6,42 

Involucre,  a  circle  of  bracts  be- 
low a  cluster  of  flowers. 

Irregular,  not  symmetrical  in 
form. 

Irrigation,  effect  of  on  grasses..  282 

Italian  or  crimson  clover. 351 

Millet 175 

Rye-grass .. 161 

Ives,  Henry,  on  quack  grass 169 

Japan  clover 366 

Johnson  grass 171 

Jordon,  Prof.  W.  H.,  food  values 

of  hay .- 291 

Julie,  J.,  on  manure  for  grasses  267 

On  reasons  for  a  rotation 259 

Juncus,  proliferous- 37 

June  grass,  see  Poa  pratensis, 

132,  139,  143. 


PAGB 

June  Grass,  Analysis 57 

A  weed. 135 

Ergot  on 420 

For  lawn 137,  310,  317 

In  England 135 

In  Kansas' and  Nebraska.136,  137 

Spreads  rapidly  in  Nebraska .     79 

Jungle  grasses 73 


,  clover 334 

Effects  of  feeding  prairies ...    80 

Grazing 82 

Kedzie,    Dr.    R.    C.,   on    green 

manuring 279 

On  manuring  grass  lands 271 

Keel,  a  central  dorsal  ridge 77 

Keeled,  carinate,  having  a  keel. 

Kentucky  blue-grass 132 

See  June  grass  and  Poa  pra- 
tensis. 

Kernel 41,  43 

Killebrew,    Dr.  J.  B,,  on  Ber- 
muda grass 163 

On  orchard  grass 115 

On  sowing  grass  without  a 

crop 253 

Knapp,  Dr.  S.  A.,  on  alsike  clo- 
ver.  348 

On  care  of  pastures 264 

On  how  much  seed  to  sow. .  244 

On  orchard  grass 116 

Knobbe,  Dr 206 

Knot-grass 65,  223 

Kyllingia... 35 

Labiatse 63 

Lachnosterna  f  usca 402 

Lacuna 14,  26,  30 

Lady's  Thumb. 223 

Lamb's  quarters. 222 

Lamina,  see  leaf.  < 

Lanceolate,  shaped  like  a  lance 

or  spear  head. 
Languria  Mozardi 378 


INDEX. 


447 


Lapham,   Dr.  I.   A.,  a  need  of 

new  grasses 301 

On  selecting  grasses 228 

Latta,  Prof. ,  on  tall  fescue . . . . .  131 

Latticed  cells 25,  26 

Lawes,  Baron  J.  B.,  amount  of 

dry  matter  to  the  acre 258 

On  care  of  grass  lands. .  -265,  273 

On  cock's  foot 110 

On  crested  dog's  tail 195 

On  experiment  on  fertilizing 

grass  lands 273 

On  fertilizing  grass  lands  in 

America 272 

On  red-top 148 

On  relative  value  of  foods  for 

manure 331 

On  roots  of  clover -_ 329 

On  rye-grass 160 

On  sweet  vernal 157 

On  tall  oat-grass. 122 

On  velvet  grass . .' 193 

On  yellow  oat-grass 191 

lawn  grass  mixtures 311 

Lawns,  how  to  make 310 

Importance  of 309 

Lea,  Pryor,  on  Texas  millet 187 

Leaf -.      9 

Characters,  in 30,  31 

Closing..- 23,  25 

Durability  of. 12 

Function  of 49,  50,  52 

Hoppers 401 

Of  Alopecurus. - 24 

Of  Amphicarpum 18,  20 

Of  Andropogon.- 13,  19,  21 

OfAvena -     30 

Of  Bermuda  grass 18 

OfBouteloua 28 

OfBromus 29 

Of  Chloris 19 

Of  Cynodon 18 

Of  Dactylis 19,  23 

Of  Deschampsia 26 

Of  Festuca. .-     25 

Of  grass 10,  12,  36,  64,  76 


PAGE 

Leaf ,  of  Hierochloa 24 

Of  Indian  corn 13,  18,  19,  30 

Of  June  grass 13,  19,  23 

Of  Leersia .20,  23,  24,  25 

Unsymmetrical 12 

Leaflet,  a  part  of  a  compound 
leaf. 

Leaves  long 134 

Minute  structure 13  to  31 

Movements  of 23,  24,  25 

Of  Lygeum 23 

Of  Nardus 23 

Of  Panicum  capillare 30 

Of  Panicum  plicatum..21,  24,  27 

Of  Paspalum 21 

Of  Phleum 19,  23,  24,  29,  36 

Of  Poa  pratensis 13,  19,  23 

Of  quack  grass 29 

Ofrye_ 29 

Of  Secale 29 

OfSetaria ;... 30 

Of  Spartina. 28,  29 

Of  Sporobolus 24 

Of  Stipa ...24,  26,  27 

Of  Triticum 29,  31 

Only  a  mid-rib 13 

Rollers 386 

Section  of.. 14 

Smut  of  Timothy -  414 

Sleep  of 328 

Tortion  of 23,  29,  30 

LeDuc,  Gen.  W.  G.,  on  cocking 

hay 294 

How  much  seed  to  sow 243 

Leersia 6,  11 

Glumes  of 35 

Hookson. 17 

Leaf  of.... 20,  23,  24,  25 

Legume,  the  seed  vessel  of 
Leguminosse,  as  the  pod  of  a 
pea. 

Legumes  rich  in  nitrogen 291 

Leguminosse 61,  67,  320 

Leaves  of 23 

Leptosphaeria  on  roots  of  clover 
and  alfalfa.-.  ..  426 


448 


INDEX, 


PAGE 

Lespedeza  striata... 366 

Leucania  unipunctata 405 

Liatris,  leaf  of 29 

Libby.  E.  H.,  on  orchard  grass.  Ill, 

Light,  effect  of 49,50 

Ligule 10,  64,  76 

Liliacese.. ..     63 

Lily  family 63 

Limber  Bill 182 

Linaceae --     63 

Lindley ,  Dr.  J. ,  quoted 60 

On  crested  dog's  tail 195 

On  red-top 148 

On  tall  oat-grass 121 

Linseed  cake,  value  as  a  manure.  331 
Lintuer,  Prof.  J.  A.  on  clover  in- 
sects....  371 

Lobe,  any  division  of  an  organ. 

Loco  weed.. 218 

Locusta 36 

Locusts 409 

Lodicule... 33,  35,  64,  65 

Lolium,  analysis  of 58 

Lolium  perenne 157,  159 

Lucerne,  see  Medicago  sativa. 
Lunate,  half  moon-shaped,  cres- 
cent-shaped. 

Lupine 360 

Lygeum,  leaf  of 23 

Lyme  grass. 200 


Making  clover  hay  in  one  day.. 

Making  hay 286, 

Mallow 

Mallow  family. 

Malvaceae. 

Mammoth  clover. 106, 334, 

Manures,  ammoniacal  increase 


Disuse  of. 

Effect  of. 271,275, 

Effect  of  barnyard 

For  grass  lands 

Improve     the    quality     of 


276 

277 


281 


PAGE 

Manures,  loss  of  food  in  passing 

through  animals.. -.  281 

Mineral  increase  leguminous 

plants 276- 

Value  of  foods  for 331,  332 

Manuring,  green 279 

Marasmius  on  roots  of  grasses..  431 

Marine  grasses. 74 

Marshes,  grasses  for 233 

Masters,  Dr.  M.  T.,  experiments 

on  grass  lands.  - 273 

On  improving  by  selection . .  305 

On  plant  life 50 

Matricaria,  a  weed 214 

May-beetle 402 

Mayweed.. 220- 

McMinn,  J.  M.,  on  list  of  grasses  204 

Meadow,  battle  in 273 

Care  of '. 266 

Cat's  tail.. 10a 

Meadow  fescue. ..126,  127,  200 

Adulterated  with  rye-grass..  207 
Meadow  foxtail,  see  Alophecurus 

pratensis 153 

Meadow,  grasses  suited  to...74,  226 

Soft  grass 193 

Yields  less  than  pasture 260 

Meadows,  first  in  Great  Britain.  198 

Of  the  Romans 197 

Means  grass 171 

Medicago.. 352 

Medicago  sativa 86,  352 

Fungus  on  roots 426 

In  California 86 

Peronospora  on 430 

Medick 357 

Black,  a  weed 216 

Median  fiber 14 

Medium  red  clover 344 

Melica  stricta,  section  of  leaf. . .     17 

Melica,  glume  of 35 

Pistil  of 37 

Melilotus 358 

Membranous,  thin   and  rather 

pliable. 
MesophyU 30 


INDEX. 


449 


PAGE 

Mexico,  hay  in 95,96,  97 

Northern  grasses  in 94  to  99 

Mibora,  pistil  of 37 

Mice,  injurious  to  grass .'.  369 

Microscope,  how  to  use. .75,  76 

Midge,  clover-leaf- 383 

Clover-seed. 389 

Mid-rib 13 

Ofaglume 36 

Mid-vein.. 13 

Mildew  on  grasses 426 

Milkweed.. 222 

Milium,  spikelet  of 33 

Millet 171,  175 

Minerals  and  ammonia,  effect  of  277 

And  nitrate,  effect  of 277 

Mint  family 63 

Mixtures,  better  than  one  grass  226 

For  sowing -..  231 

Moles  in  grass  land 369 

Molina  to  adulterate  Cynosurus  207 

Mollugo- 216 

Monadephous    stamens,     those 

united  by  their  filaments 64 

Monoecious,  unisexual,  the  two 

sexes  born  on  one  plant 38 

Montana,  grazing 82,  87  to  94 

Montgomery,  on  Johnson  grass.  173 

Mooting ..-      6 

Morphology  of  flowers 33 

Morrow,  Prof.  G.  E.,  how  much 

seed  to  sow 243 

On  orchard  grass 116 

Motion  in  plants  universal.. 44, 

45,46 
Movements  of  leaves 23,  24,  25 

Ofroots 3 

Ofsap— 9 

Muck,  use  of 271 

Mucronate,     abruptly    pointed 

with  a  short  spine. -     77 

Muhlenbergia,  fertilized 39 

Muhlenbergia  glomerata 181 

Muhlenbergia  Mexicana 185 

In  Mexico 97 

Muhlenberg's  grass 181 

57 


PAGE 

Muhler,   on  fertilization  of  the 

flowers  of  red  clover 325 

Mullein 221 

Munroa,  leaf  of-  - 22 

Mustard 2f5 

Mustard  family 61 

Names  of  a  plant,  rules  for.. .69,  70 
Nardus,  leaf  of 23 

Pistil  of 37 

Narrow  dock. 223 

Native  grasses  of  Pacific 82  to  87 

Grazing  lands _  _  .78  to  99 

Nebraska,  flora  changes...79,  80,  82 

Grazing 82 

Nectaria 33 

Nectar,  the  sweet  secretion  of 

flowers. 
Nerve,  an  unbranched  vein  or 

slender  rib. 

Net  veined. 26,  64 

Nettle... 223 

Nevada,  grazing 82 

New  Mexico,  grazing 82,  93 

Night  shades.-. 63 

Nimble  Will 182 

Nitrate  of  soda,  effect  of 277 

Nitrogen 51,  52,  53 

In  clover 291,  329,  332 

Node,    a    joint    of    stem    from 

which  the  leaves  spring... 5, 

6,  9,  44,  76 

Nomenclature- 69,  70 

Nonesuch. 357 

Oat-grass,  analysis. 58 

Tall 121 

Oats - 65,66 

Flowers  of -.38,  39,  41 

Obcordate,  in  verted  heart  shape. 

Oblong,      considerably     longer 
than  broad  and  with  sides 
nearly  parallel   and   ends 
rounded. 

Obovate,  ovate  with  the  broader 
end  toward  the  apex. 


450 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Obtuse,  blunt  or  rounded  at  the 
extremity. 

Onobrychis 360 

Orangeworts 61 

Orchard  grass,  see  Dactylis-109,  183 

Early  culture 198 

Elements  in 54,  56 

Fungus  on 428 

Rust  on 419 

Saving  seed. 119 

With  clover.. 334 

Orchidaceae 67 

Orders 60,61,62,  63,  64 

Oregon,  grazing 82 

Ornamental  grasses 317 

Oryza,  flowers 38 

Oscinis  trifolii..- 385 

Ounce,  seeds  to  the 202 

Ovary --33,  37,42,  43 

Over-feeding,  effects  of. -.78,  79,  80 
Ovoid,  with  the  shape  of  an  egg 
and  stem  at  the  larger  end. 

Ovule 64 

Ox-eye  daisy -  .112,  219 

Oxygen ^ 49,  51 

Pacific  slope,  native  grasses  of 
82  to  87. 

Page,  Prof.  J.  R.,  on  lucerne 355 

On  orchard  grass. 114 

Pale,  see  palea. 

Palea,  an  inner  bract  or  glume . 

33,  35,  36,  77 

Palmate,  as  where  a  leaf  has  sev- 
eral   or    many    leaflets   all 
starting  from  the  apex  of 
the  petiole. 

Panicese - 68 

Glumes  of 34,  35 

Panicle,  a  branching  raceme  - . .     36 

Paniculate - 64 

Panicum  capillare,  hairs  on 17 

How  seeds  are  scattered 101 

Leafof 30 

Panicum  Crus-galli,  leaf  of. -.12,  25 

Panicum  Germanicurn 175 


PAGE 

Panicum,  in  Pacific  slope 83,  84 

Panicum  plicatum,  leaf  of.21,  24,  27 

Panicum  Texancum 189 

Papilionaceae .  321 

Parallel  veined 64,  76 

Parenchyma  of  leaf 25,  28 

Parsley  family 62 

Parsnip,  a  weed 218 

Paspalum,  leaf  of 21 

Pastures,  care  of 261 

Grasses  for 74,  226 

Improving 262 

When  to  feed. 261 

Yield  more  than  meadows..  260 

Pea 362 

Pearl  millet 187 

Pedicel,   the  stem  of  a  single 

flower  in  a  cluster. 
Peduncle,  a  stalk  which  usually 
supports  a  cluster  of  flowers. 

Pendulous. 64 

Pennisetum  spicatum 187 

Perennial  rye  or  rye-grass 159 

Perennials,    living   more    than 

two  years. 
Perfect,   a  flower  having  both 

stamens  and  pistils 38 

Perianth 64 

Perianthium 33,  36 

Perigynous,     said     of     organs 
which  adnate  to  the  calyx  or 
corolla,  as  in  the  flower  of 
a  cherry. 
Permanent  grass  vs.   alternate 

husbandry 256 

Peronospora  on  clover  and  alfalfa  430 

On  grasses. 429 

Persistent,   remaining  even  on 

the  fruit  or  during  winter. 
Petiole,  the  stem  of  a  leaf. 

Pezizaon  clover 427 

Phalaris,  glume  of 35 

Phares,  Prof.  D.  L.,  on  Bermuda 

grass 164 

On  bur  clover 357 

On  clover  in  Mississippi 334 


INDEX. 


461 


PAGE 

Phares,  Prof.  D.  L.,  on  grasses 

for  the  south. 239 

On  Johnson  grass 172 

On  lucerne  in  Miss 356 

On  orchard  grass.  - 115 

On  red-top 147 

On  tall  fescue 127,  129 

On  tall  oat-grass 123 

On  Texas  millet 1ST 

On  velvet  grass 194 

Phleum  pratense,  5, 101,  111,  112, 

114,  119,  183 

Atthesouth 106 

Early  culture 198 

Early  history 103 

Elements  in 53,  55,  56 

Ereroton 420 

Fertilizing  flowers 39 

Flowers  of 77 

Fungus  on 423 

Glumes  of 36,  37 

In  Kansas. 105 

In  Nebraska.. 105 

Leaf  of 19,  23,  24/29,  36 

Qualities  of 104 

Saving  seed 106 

Smut  of 414 

Sowing  seed 104,  106 

With  clover j 334,  336 

Phyllachora  on  grass  and  clover  424 
Physarum  on  roots  of  grasses..  431 

Phytonomus  punctatus.. 380 

Pigweed 222 

Pinnate,  a  compound  leaf  with 
leaflets  along  the  sides  of  a 
mid-rib. 
Pistil,   the  female  organ    of  a 

flower.. 33,  37 

Pisum 362 

Pitted  vessels. 7,25 

Plant,  a  factory,  a  machine '  50 

Food. .50,  51,  52,  332 

Growth 48,  49,  50.  51,  52 

Plants,  affinity  of 60,  61 

Plantain,  narrow  leaved 220 

Plaster,  use  of  - 270,  271,  277 


PAGE 

Plaster,  value  of 330,  337 

Plats  of  grasses 70,  71 

Platylepis,  scale  of 35 

Plumule,  first  bud  of  a  plant,  42, 

43,  65 

Sways  around 45 

Poa-_ 132 

Analysis  of 57 

Annua 69 

Arachnif  era 143 

Closed  sheaths  of 10 

Compressa 137 

Compressa,  analysis _  _ .     57 

Compressa  and  Pratensis  _~  134 

Cutof. 32 

Epidermis  of 15 

For  lawn 310  to  317 

Leaf  of .12,  13,  19,  23,  30,  33 

LikeFestuca 126 

In  Montana 90,91 

Names  for 70 

Pratensis,      see     also    June 
grass.-116f  132, 137, 139,  143, 183 

Serotina 140,  145 

Trivialis 142 

Aweed 135 

Poaceae 68 

Pod,   a  dry  and  several  seeded 

fruit. 
Pollen,  the  fertilizing  cells  of 

the  anther 37,  39,  64 

Inrye... 41 

Polygonacege  _.l 63 

Pomes 62 

Poor  soil,  grasses  will  not  thrive 

on 279 

Poppy 216 

Potash... 51,52 

Potato  pierced  by  quack  grass..  170 

Potatoes,  value  as  a  manure 331 

Pounds,  seeds  to  the 202 

Power  of  motion  in  plants.  .44,  45, 46 
Prentiss,  Prof.   A.    N.,  on  seed 

distribution 101 

Preparation  of  the  soil 240 

70,71,72 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Prickly  comfrey 368 

Primaries,  of  leaves 26 

Primary  meristem 2 

Pringle,  C.  G.,  grasses  of  Pa- 
cific  82,  83,  84 

Procumbent,  lying  along  the 
ground. 

Progress  slow 199,  200 

Proliferous 36,  37 

Proterandrous 38 

Proterogynous 38 

Protoplasm 1 

Puccinia  graminis  ..  _ 416 

Pulse  family 61,320 

Pulvinus 328 

Purple  bent 145 

Purselane 216 

Pusey  on  irrigation r 283 

Pythium  on  young  grasses  and 
clovers 430 

Quack,  quick,  quitch,  quake 
grass,  see  Agropyrum  rep- 
ens .92,  167 

Quack  grass,  how  to  kill 225 

Ina  potato 170 

PhyUachora  on 424 

Smut  of 415 

Quarts,  ground  for  adulterating 
seeds 207 

Quotations  left  over 432 

Raceme,  an  indeterminate  in- 
florescence with  lengthened 
axis  and  nearly  equal  ped- 
icels ... 36 

Racemose,  like  a  raceme. 
Rachilla,  the  axis  of  a  spikelet.64, 101 
Rachis,  the  axis  of  a  spike. 
Radicle,  the  lower  part  of  a  seed- 
ling plant,  the  first  internode    65 

Rag-weed 220 

Rain  damaging  hay r 289 

Randall  grass 126,  127 

Ravenal,  A.  W.,  on  Texas  mil- 
let... ..  187 


PAGE 

Recurved,  curved  backward  or 
downward. 

Red  clover 323 

Fertilized  by  bees 325,  342 

Fungus  on  roots 426 

Red-top,  seeAgrostis. 
Regular,  uniform  or  symmetri- 
cal in  shape. 

Reticulated  cells 25 

Rhizome,  a  rootstock;  a  thick- 
ened stem,  usually  below  the 

surface  of  the  ground 5,  133 

Rhode  Island  bent .'....  151 

Rib  grass,  Plantago  lanceolata, 
65,  220. 

Rice. 66 

Richardson,  C. ,  quoted 52 

Riley,   Prof.   C.  V.,  on    clover- 
leaf  beetle... 380 

On  clover  root  borer 376 

Robbins,    W.   K.,    on    Muhlen- 

berg's  grass 183 

Roberts,  Prof.  I.  P.,  on  clover- 
root  borer 378 

On  clover  sickness 343 

On  orchard  grass 112 

On    selecting    grasses    and 

clovers 234 

Robinson,  on  lawns 309 

Rocky  mountain  pastures.  .82  to  88 

Romans,  meadows  of 197 

Root ...2,  3,  4,  42,  43 

Root-cap 2 

Root-hairs 3,4,43 

Root-sheath 42 

Roots,  of  clover. 324 

Depth  of ..3,  333 

Fewer  in  close  pasture  than 

where  grass  is  tall 262 

Function  of 49 

Of  Indian  corn 45 

Roots,,  movements  of 3,  45 

Weight  of,  per  acre 330 

Root-stocks,  see  rhizome. 5,  133 

Root-tip,  sensitive 45 

......     61 


INDEX. 


453 


Rose  family 61 

Rotation  of  crops,  advantage  of  259 
Rothrock,  Dr.  J.  T.,  grasses  of 

great  basin 93 

Rough-stalked  meadow  grass ..  142 
Royal    Agrl.    Soc.,     consulting 

botanist  of 212 

Rubiaceaa 67 

Rudbeckia,  a  weed 214,  219 

Rural  New  Yorker,   on  quack 

grass 168 

Quoted 242 

Rust,  on  alfalfa ...-  419 

On  clover —  418 

On  grass 416 

On  orchard  grass 419 

On  tall  fescue 419 

Rutaceae - -  -     61 

Rye 65,66 

Ergot  on 420 

Flowers  of... 38,  39,41 

Leafof.. - 29 

Rye-grass,  analysis 58 

DeLauneon 230,231 

Early  culture.. '..  198 

Glumesof. 34 

Seeds    used    to     adulterate 

meadow  fescue 207,  212 

Rye,  for  manure 280 

Sanifoin -  360 

Salem  grass 

Salt,  as  a  fertilizer. 269,  271 

Sanborn ,  Prof.  J.  W. ,  on  amount 

of  seed  to  sow.. 242 

On  seeding  to  grass 249 

On  time  to  cut  grass 291,  293 

Sanderson,     James,    of     Scot- 
land, on  sowing  grass  with  a 

crop 254 

Sap,  movement. 

Satin  grass. -.  181 

Saving  seeds --  299 

Saxifragaceae 62 

Scabrous;  rough  to  the  touch. 
Scales,  lodicules. 


Scarious,  thin,  dry,  membran- 
ous  64 

Schinzia,  on  roots  of  clover 431 

Sclerotium 420 

On  clover 427 

Scott,  F.  J. ,  on  lawns. 309 

Scribner,  Prof.  F.  L.,  on  grasses 

of  Montana 87 

Scutch  grass... 163,  167 

Scutellate,  shield  shaped 65 

Scutellum 42 

Sea-grass 65 

Secondaries,  of  leaves 26 

Sedge-grass _     65 

Sedges 65 

Bulliform  cells  of 25 

Value  of 303 

Seed 41,  42,  43 

Saving  clover.. 339 

Sowing  clover. 336 

Seed  stations  in"  Germany,  work 

of 208 

Seeding  grass  by  inoculation 247 

With  grain 247 

Without  grain.. 247,  250 

Seedling  rot  on  roots  of  grasses 

and  clovers 430 

Seeds  to  the  acre,  see  each  lead- 
ing grass  near  the  close  of 
the  topic. 

Seeds  bury  themselves 45,  46,  47 

Carried  on  the  feet  of  cattle.  101 

Covered  by  animals 47 

Depth  of  covering 49 

Germination 48,  49 

How  distributed 100,  101 

How  much  to  sow 240 

How  preserved 48 

How  to  procure  good 211 

Move ...45,46,47 

Pounds    or  ounces    to    the 

bushel 202 

Produced  by  one  plant 326 

Pure  and  mixed 127 

Saving —  299 

Sowing - 245,  263 


454 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Seeds,  sprout  more  than  once...  210 

Standard  grades 211 

Testing ...206,208 

Selecting  grasses 227 

Selection,  improving  by 305 

Self-heal 221 

Septoria  on  grasses 428 

Sesleria,  plan  of  leaf. 14,  23 

Sessile,  having  no  stem. 64 

Sessions,  Governor,  on  tall  oat- 
grass 124 

Setaceous,  bristle-like. 

Setaria  Italica.. 175 

Setaria,  leaf  of 30 

Shaler,  Prof.  N.  S.,  on  need  of 

new  grasses ".. 304 

Sheath 9,  10,  64,  76 

Ofglume 36 

Sheep  annoyed  by  Stipa 47 

Fescue 132 

On  mountain  pastures 87 

Sorrel. 223 

Shelton,  Prof.  E.  M.,  on  Bermu- 
da grass 165 

How  much  seed  to  sow 243 

On  buying  good  seeds ..  .207, 

211,  213 

On  clover  in  Kansas 334 

On  grasses  for  Kansas 234 

On  Johnson  grass 173 

On  June  grass 136 

On  lucerne  in  Kansas 355 

On  orchard  grass -...--  116 

On  over-feeding  the  prairies.     80 
On  seeding  to  grass  without 

acrop 252 

On  sowing  grass  on  prairie 

sod 255 

On  sowing  the  seed 245,  253 

On  tall  fescue 131 

On  tall  oat-grass 123 

On  Timothy. 105 

Shepherd's  purse 215 

Shrews,  injurious  to  grasses  and 

clovers 369 

7 


Silene 215 

Sinclair,  Geo.,  on  grasses 199 

On  irrigation. 283 

Sleep  of  leaves 328 

Smooth-stalked  meadow  grass. .  132 

Smuts 414 

Snapping  beetles. 407 

Snout  moth 400 

Snow,  seeds  drifting  on 101 

Sod  in  Montana 93 

Soda,  use  of. 270 

Soft  bast 25 

Soft  woolly  grass. 230 

Soil  best  for  grasses 240 

For  clover. 334 

Food  in 50,  51,  52 

Poor  grasses  will  not  thrive 

on 279 

Solanaceae 63 

Sorghum 66 

Sorghum  halapense 171 

Leafof 12 

Sorrel,  sheep ._• 223 

South,  grasses  for 234,  239 

Sowing  grass  seed  on  prairie  sod  255 

Seeds  on  grass 254 

The  seed 245,263 

Sown,   what  grasses    in    Great 

Britain.. 201 

What     grasses     in    United 

States 204 

Sparuna,  leaf  of. 28,  29 

Spathella 33 

Spear-grass 132 

Species,  a  name 69 

Spelt  flowers .40,  41 

Spicate 64 

Spike,  an  inflorescence  with  ses- 
sile flowers  on  an  elongated 

axis 36 

Spike  of  Timothy 76 

Spikelet 36 

OfPoa 33 

Spiral  vessels 25 

Split-sheaths 10 

Sporobolus 8,  9,  65 


INDEX. 


455 


Sporobolus,  indicus,  smut  on 428 

In  Pacific  slope 83 

Leafof 24 

Seedof... 43 

Spring  beetles 407 

Sprout,   seeds  may  more  than 

once 210 

Spurge 223 

Spurred  rye 420 

Squamulae 83 

St.  John's  Wort 215 

Stacking  hay 297 

Stalker,  Dr.  M. ,  on  Stipa 47 

Stamen,    the  male    part    of    a 

flower 33 

Staminate,     a    flower    bearing 

stamens  but  no  pistils ... 38 

Starch 42 

Stellate  cells  in  leaf _  _     13 

Stem 2,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9 

Section  of 6 

Straightens  how 6 

Stewart,      Henry,     on     Japan 

clover 368 

Stewart,  E.  W.,  on  manure  of 

animals 281 

Stick-seed.. 221 

Stigma,  the  upper  part  of  the 
pistil      which    receives    tne 

pollen 33,  37 

Stipa,  awn  twists 46,  47 

Leafof 24,26,27 

Stipellate 364 

Stipels 364 

Stipitate .• 64 

Stipules,  appendages  at  the  base 

of  some  leaves. 
Stock  take  5  to  10  per  cent  of 

manurial  value  of  food 332 

Stockbridge,  Prof.,  on  pastures.  262 
Stolonif  erous,  bearing  prostrate, 
rooting  branches. 

Stomata- 14,  15,  16,  127 

Stooling ..  -  - 6 

Storer,  Prof.  F.  H.,  on  fermen- 
tation of  hay 298 


PAGE 

Storing  hay,  effect  of 288 

Stragula-- 33 

Straw,  value  as  a  manure 331 

Stubble,  manurial  value  of 332 

Weight  of  per  acre 330 

Studying  grasses 75,  76,  77 

Sturtevant,  Dr.  E.  L.,  on  Hun- 
garian grass 176 

Style,  the  part  suually  uniting 
the  ovary  and  the  stigma  of  a 

pistil. ..33,37 

Sugar -  - 66 

Sulphate  of  lime,  effect  of. 277 

Sulphur 51,  52 

Summer  dew-grass 145 

Superphosphate  of  ammonia,  ef- 
fect of . 277 

Superphosphate  of  lime,  effect  of  276 

Sweet  clover 358 

Sweet  scented  vernal  grass 153 

Analysis  of.. 58 

Awns  of.. 47 

Proterandrous 38 

Swine,  clover  for. 335 

Syrian  grass 171 

Tall  meadow  fescue....  126,  127,  131 
Tallant,  W.  F.,  on  orchard  grass  114 
Tall  oat-grass,  see  Arrhenathe- 

rum. 

Tare - - 362 

Terete,  cylindrical. 

Tertiaries . - 26 

Testa 65 

Testing  seeds.. 206,  208 

Texas  blue  grass 143 

Texas  millet. 189 

Texas,  some  leading  grasses  in_.81 ,  82 
Thistle... - 219 

Killed  by  clover. 835 

Thomas,    J.    J.,   on  the  model 


On  need  of  new  grasses 301 

On  seeding  grass  with  grain.  247 
Thurber,  Dr.  Geo.,  on  need  of 
new  grasses 301 


456 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Thurber,  Dr.  Geo.,  on  weeds 214 

Tillering 6 

Tilletia-. 414 

Time  to  cut  grass 59 

Timothy,  see  Phleum  pratense. 

Alpine 89 

Toad-flax 221 

Tortion  of  leaves 23,  29,  30 

Trachypogon,  leaf  of 21 

Tracy,  W.  W.,  on  a  seed 41 

Tragus,  glands  on 8 

Tragus  racemosus,  hairs  on 17 

Trees,  families  of 63 

Trefoil 321 

Trelease,  Dr.  Wm.,  onfungi._..  413 

Tribune,  quoted 264 

Trichomes 3,  4,  5,  14,  16,  17,  43 

Trif  olium 321 

Trif olium  hybridum 347 

Incarnatum 351 

Medium 344 

Pratense 323 

Repens 348 

Repens  for  lawn 315 

Tripsacum,  moncceious 38 

Triticum,  see  Agropyrum. 

Troop,  Prof.,  on  tall  fescue 131 

Tuber,  of  Timothy 76 

Tufted,  growing  in  bunches. 

Turf  in  Montana 93 

Turgescence,  a  swelling  or  en- 
larging     44 

Turnips,  value  as  a  manure 331 

Twining  of  a  vine 44 

Twisted  awn 36,  46,  47 

Leaves 23,29,  30 

Twitch  grass.. 167 

Two-ranked.. 76 

Typha,  leaf  of 29 

Ulex 360 

Umbelliferae. 62 

Uniola,  glumes  of 35 

United  States,  grasses  sown  in.  204 

Uromyces  trifolii 418 

Ustilago 414 


Utah,  grazing  in. 


PAGE 

.     82 


Vagabond  crambus 410,  411 

Valvate,  opening  as  if  by  doors 

or  valves. 

Vanilla-grass,  flowers  of 38 

Vasculum 71 

Vase 71 

Vasey ,  Dr. ,  on  Johnson  grass. .  .  173 

On  Texas  millet 189 

Veins,  transverse 12,  26 

Velvet  grass 193,  230 

Vernation 23 

Versatile 64 

Vessels 7,25 

Vetch 362 

Vicia 362 

Violet    root-fungus   on    alfalfa 

and  clover 426 

Vitaceae 61 

Voelcker,  Dr.  A. ,  on  clover  as  a 

manure. 332 

Fertilizers  for  grass  lands 269 

On    manuring     to    increase 
clover  seed... 339 

Quality  of  grasses  affected  by 
manures  and  drainage 282 

Warington ,  R. ,  quoted 52 

Washington,  T.,  grazing  in 82 

Waters,  R.,  on  orchard  grass —  115 
Watson,  Sereno,  grasses  of  great 

basin, 94 

Weeds 62,63 

Among  grasses 224 

Come  in  where  pastures  are 

over-fed 79,  80 

Defined... 214,  215 

'How  distributed. 214 

In  grasses,  list  of 214  to  223 

In   meadows  decrease    with 

manuring 276 

Killed  by  clover 335 

To  get  rid  of 224 

Where  from. 214 

Wheat...  65,66 


INDEX. 


457 


PAGE 

Wheat,  cross-breeding- 307 

Flowers 38,  39,  40,  41 

Spikrletof 35 

White  bent 148 

Clover 348 

Clover  for  lawn.- 315 

Clover,  yield  of  seeds  aided 

by  bees 327 

White  grub 402 

White  top 148 

Wild  Timothy. 181 

Wild  rice,  rnoncoeious 38 

Willard,  X.  A.,  on  list  of  grasses  204 
Wilson,  A.  S.,on  fertilization  of 

flowers 39 

Winter  grazing,  country  for.  .82,  88 

At  the  south ...237,239 

Winterkilling  of  clover 338 

Wire  grass 137,  163 


PAGE 

Wire  grass,  analysis  of 57 

Wire  worms..... 406 

Witch  grass 167 

Woodchucks  in  grass  land 369 

Woodward,  J.  S.,  on  clover  to 

kiU  weeds 335 

Worlidge,  J. .  on  ray-grass 198 

Wyoming,  grazing  in 82 

Yarrow,  seeds 218 

Yellow  butterfly ..  388 

Oat-grass 191 

Yorkshire  fog 193 

Zea  mays,  see  Indian  corn. 

Zizania  aquatica.  leaf  of 12 

Zizania,  monoecious 38 

Unsvmmetrical  leaf...         .  11 


I/,/ 


A    000  559  859     4 


